After the decline of the Harappan Civilization, many rural cultures came into existence outside the Indus region. Since the people of these pastoral-cultivating cultures used stone and copper tools together, this period was called 'Chalcolithic pastoral-cultivating culture ' Having said. In post-Harappan India, settlements of pastoral society are visible in south-eastern Rajasthan, western part of Madhya Pradesh, western Maharashtra and south-eastern India. These Chalcolithic cultures are identified on the basis of the different types of pottery they used. There are four main ones-
- Ahar culture or Banas culture (approximately BC 2100 – 1500 BC) was widespread in the Rajasthan region,
- The Kayatha culture (approximately BC 2000 - BC 1800) was spread over the Narmada, Tapti and Mahi valleys in central India,
- Malwa culture (BC 1900 – BC 1400) was spread in the Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh and
- The Jorwe culture (approximately BC 1400 - until 700 BC) was widespread in the Maharashtra region.
Also there were some other cultures, such as the Sasalda culture (approximately 2300 BC to 2000 BC), the Prabhas Patan culture (approximately BC). 2000 - BC up to 1400) and Rangpur culture (approximately BC 1500 - till 1200 BC) etc.
South-East Rajasthan
Ahar Culture
Ahar (Udaipur), Gilund (Chittorgarh) and Balathal (Udaipur) of the Banas Valley located in south-eastern Rajasthan have been excavated. Here Chalcolithic culture is called 'Ahar culture' is called. Being situated in the Banas river valley, it is also called 'Banas culture'.
Ahad and Gilund were both large settlements. Simple houses in Ahar were made of mud mortar and stone. Stone was used in the foundations. The walls were reinforced with bamboo drapes and stone balusters and the roofs may have been sloping The barber used to go. Evidence of the use of baked bricks has also been found in the construction of the houses of Gilund. The floors were made of black clay and yellow silt, and sometimes gravel from the river bed was laid on it. A house thirty three feet ten inches long has been found in the Ahad and its two parts were made with a kutcha wall. Several mouth chulhas have been found from some houses. Bhandar-troughs have also been found from Gilund.
The people of the Ahar culture were originally agriculturists and pastoralists who cultivated wheat, barley, paddy, gram, moong and possibly millet, and raised cows, buffaloes, goats, sheep and pigs. Were. Bones of fish, turtle, chicken, deer etc. have been found in the excavation. The main pottery of this culture is in black and red colors with linear and dotted white figures, but other types of pottery have also been found. The people of Ahad or Tambavali (Copper Place) were familiar with the widespread use of copper. The people of this culture smelted the copper in their homes and exported the finished copper tools probably to the contemporary Chalcolithic cultures of Madhya Pradesh and Deccan. Flat axes, bangles, rings, antimony needles, knives and a variety of sheets made of copper have been found in the Ahad. A large number of copper instruments have also been found from a place called Ganeshwar near Ahad. On the basis of radio carbon-dated this culture started in BC. It is believed to be around 2000. around 1200 BC I lost this culture.
Malwa Region
Signs of Chalcolithic life have been found from the Malwa region located in western Madhya Pradesh. Kayatha (Ujjain), Eran, Navdatoli and Maheshwar are the important excavated sites. Evidence of three cultures has been found from Kayatha - Kayatha, Ahar and Malwa.
The period before this is called 'Kayatha culture' (BC 2200-2000 BC). In this three samples of pottery made by chalk, many axes and bangles of copper, microlithic tools, amethyst, onyx and bead of scallion have been found.
The second period of this stage includes the 'Ahar culture' (circa 2100-1500 BC) Evidence has been found which is found in South-East Rajasthan.
The third period of Kayatha 'Malwa culture ' (BC 1600-1300 BC) and the most appropriate evidence of this is found from Navdatoli.
Navdatoli Excavation of HD Sankalia did it. Navdatoli has two varieties of wheat, linseed, lentils, black gram, green gram, green peas Evidence of Khesari crops has been found. It is the most extensively excavated Chalcolithic village-site on this continent. In the excavation, the pottery found from Malwa is considered to be the best among other pottery of the Chalcolithic period.
Vienna Congress
Maharashtra Region
Most sites of Chalcolithic culture in western Maharashtra see you. Jorwe, Nevasa and Daimabad of Ahmednagar, Important sites like Songaon, Inamgaon etc. have been excavated in Pune district.
The basic sequence of the proto-historic life of Maharashtra is found in Daimabad. According to some scholars, the influence of the Indus civilization is reflected here at the earliest cultural level. The second period is related to the 'Ahar culture' of south-east Rajasthan, while the third period is influenced by the Malwa culture of central India.
Jorve Culture
The Chalcolithic culture is found in the fourth level called 'Jorve culture' and is typical of Maharashtra culture. Generally the date of this culture is 1400 BC. to 1000 BC But at some places like Inamgaon, it is probably dated to BC. Existed till 700. Black figures on red bottom of Chalk pots and a typical specimen of them Spouted and Nautali utensils Is. Copper objects include bangles, beads, plates, chisels, pliers, axes, knives, and small utensils.
Four copper sheets found from Daimabad - figures of man, rhinoceros and elephant driving chariots, Each of which is of solid metal and which can be linked to the Proto-historic period or to the Jorwe culture itself.
Prominent cereals include barley, wheat, lentils, kulith, peas, and occasionally rice. Scorched Plum Kernels have also been found. Evidence of jute is also found in Nevasa. Domesticated animals included cow, bull, buffalo, goat, sheep, pig and horse. A figure of a bull associated with a clay figure of Matrudevi from Inamgaon has been found. Although it was a rural culture, the process of urbanization had started in some parts, such as Daimabad and Inamgaon.
South India
The Chalcolithic elements are visible in parts of modern Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu in southern India. Brahmagiri, Maski, Piklihal, Utanur, Sanganakallu, Payampalli, Hemmige, Nagarjunakonda, Kodekal of Raichur doab between Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers Other sites have been excavated. A number of radiocarbon dates have been obtained from this cultural phase, which is roughly BC. 2300 to 900 BC fall between. There is considerable diversity in the pottery and polished stone industry. Copper was never in abundance. It is possible that the gold field of South India has been used since this period Because a gold pendant has been found from Teclacotta. Bajra and gram have been found in cultivable crops.
Extensive remains of sheep and goats have been found, indicating the importance of domesticated animals. It is said that the people of the early phase of this culture were less farmers, more herdsmen. There have also been signs of copper age living from many places in Andhra Pradesh.
Eastern India
Evidence of Chalcolithic living has been found from Birbhumi, Burdwan, Midnapore and Bankura in West Bengal. Pandurazar, Dhibi and Mahishal are the main excavated sites. From here, evidence of Chalco-Stone Age village-culture based on rice is found, whose time is around BC. It can be considered the middle of the second millennium. Chalcolithic tools have also been found from many places in Orissa. Chalcolithic black-red pottery has been found from Chirand and Sonpur in Bihar, Khairadih and Nauhan in eastern Uttar Pradesh.
Hawelia Village in Allahabad Evidence of this period is also found from The time of this culture is around BC. 1500-700 BC Supposedly.
Uttargupta Dynasty (Krishnagupta Dynasty)
Upper Ganges Valley and Doab of Ganga-Yamuna
Cultural Traditions of the Upper Ganga Valley and the Ganges-Yamuna Doab Ocher Pot (OCP) Culture starts with. This culture was spread from Mayapur in Saharanpur in Uttar Pradesh to Saipai in Etawah. A sword found from Saipai and the tip of a fishing spear clearly belong to the ocher pot. Axes, Fishing spears, horned swords in Ganga valley Other copper-devices have been found which are 'Ganga Valley Tamranidhi' Having said. Many archaeologists associate these copper deposits with the ocher pottery culture. Its period is generally BC. 2000-1500 is considered.
A special type of pottery style has been found from Atranjikheda, which is called Black-red pottery style (WRW) it is said. It is a style of the period between the Ocher Bhand and the Painted Gray Bhand culture. Thin-walled black-reddish pottery style pots have black color on the inside and sides and red on the rest. The next phase of the cultural tradition of the Doab is related to the Painted Gray Ware Culture (PGW), which indicates iron, although the association of this pot with sites in Haryana and Punjab, such as Dadheri, Bhagwanpura, etc. is non-iron. since time immemorial.
Art and Religious Life in Indus Valley Civilization
Characteristics of Copper-Stone Culture
Painted Pottery
India in the second and first millennium BC. These local pre-agricultural Chalcolithic cultures developed in AD had some elements in common. Their important feature is the pottery painted in a distinctive style made on chalk. The figures depicted are often geometric. Some pots indicate interconnection. Most of the pots were painted black and red. In Kayatha, a red colored pottery is painted with brown or chocolatey color. The Ahad has a red, black and white design. Red or black designs on a rough surface are some of the major pottery styles. Apart from this, red color (Prabhas Patan and Rangpur culture) on smooth surface. It is also an important pottery style. Special progress in pottery technology is reflected in this period. In painted pottery furnace at 500 to 700°C temperature were cooked.
Copper-Stone Equipment
The stone blade industry is an important feature of these cultures. Stones such as chalcedony, chert, jasper and agate were used to make tools such as parallel-ended blades, serrated blades, single-ended sharp blades, small knives, crescents, triangles and trapezoids. Some of these blades have sharp edges, indicating that these tools were used for farming. Polished handcrafts of Neolithic-Chalcolithic type of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh have also been found from some sites. Leveling in Copper Tools Axel and Celt whose edges are concave. In addition, arrowheads, spear spears, fishing hooks, swords, blades, bangles, rings and beads were also made of copper.28 copper bangles in a vessel from Kayatha have been found. Cotton and silk threads and bead necklaces found in Kayatha in Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh It is estimated that people were familiar with the business of spinning-weaving and goldsmithing in the Chalcolithic period.
Partition of India:Causes and Circumstances
Subsistence Economy
Almost all Chalcolithic cultures developed in semi-arid regions with black soils, such as Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra.
The economy was based on subsistence agriculture and animal husbandry. Dependence on wild hunting and dependence on other substances, such as fishing, etc. is also confirmed from some sites. Barley, Wheat, Paddy, Bajra, Jowar, Lentil, Chana, Sambool pods, Peas, Black gram and Green gram were the main crops grown.
Excavations yield remains of both domesticated and wild animals. Animals such as cows, buffaloes, sheep, goats, pigs and camels were domesticated. जानवरों की हड्डियाँ काटे जाने और घिसाव के निशान से लगता है कि जानवरों को भोजन के लिए प्रयोग किया जाता था।
समुद्री मछलियों की प्रजातियों के अवशेष इनामगाँव से मिले हैं। ताम्रपाषाणिक समूह अपने समकालीन समूहों से वस्तुओं का लेन-देन औ र व्यापार करते थे। कुछ विस्तृत बस्तियाँ, जैसे- अहाड़, गिलुंद, नागदा, नवदाटोली, प्रभास पटन, रंगपुर, प्रकाश, दायमाबाद और इनामगाँव व्यापार और विनिमय के प्रमुख केंद्र थे। अहाड़ संस्कृति के लोग ताम्र-उपकरणों को संभवतः मध्य प्रदेश तथा दकन की समकालीन संस्कृतियों को निर्यात करते थे।
सिंध का विलय
बस्तियाँ और आवास (Hamlets and Housing)
इसी काल के लोगों ने सर्वप्रथम भारतीय प्रायद्वीप में बड़े-बड़े गाँवों की स्थापना Of. अहाड़ संस्कृति के बालाथल और गिलुंद से बड़ी बस्तियों के साक्ष्य मिले हैं। ताम्र-पाषाणिक स्थलों से कुछ किलेबंद बस्तियों के प्रमाण भी मिले हैं। बालाथल के चारों ओर किलेनुमा दीवार थी। एरण और नागदा में जोर्वे काल के दौरान स्थल के चारों ओर पत्थर के रोड़े और मिट्टी से दीवार बनाई गई है। घर समूह में बनाते थे और दो घरों के बीच लगभग 1.5 मी. चौड़ी गली होती थी। मिट्टी के गारा से लीपकर आयताकार, वर्गाकार या वृत्ताकार मकान बनाये जाते थे। नवदाटोली से घास-फूस और बाँस से बने चौकोर तथा वृत्ताकार घर प्राप्त हुए हैं। कुछ छोटे वृत्ताकार घर संभवतः अन्न रखने की कोठरियाँ थीं जिससे पता चलता है कि लोग अपने घरों में पर्याप्त अनाज का भंडार कर लेते थे। छतें घास-फूस की बनाई जाती थी, जिन्हें बाँस या लकड़ी के फट्टों से सहारा दिया जाता था। फर्श भी मिट्टी से लीपे जाते थे। जोर्वे संस्कृति के अंतर्गत एक पाँच कमरोंवाले मकान का अवशेष मिला है। नेवासा में घर का सामान्य आकार 3 गुणे 7 फीट था। सबसे बड़े घर की माप 45 गुणे 20 फीट थी। गर्त-निवास के भी कुछ उदाहरण मिलते हैं।
शवाधान (Burial)
महाराष्ट्र में शवों को अस्थि-कलश में घरों में फर्श के नीचे दफनाया जाता था। दक्षिण भारत में प्राप्त शवों के सिर पूर्व और पैर पश्चिम की ओर एवं महाराष्ट्र में प्राप्त शवों के सिर उत्तर की ओर एवं पैर दक्षिण की ओर मिले हैं। पश्चिमी भारत में लगभग संपूर्ण शवाधान एवं पूर्वी भारत में आंशिक शवाधान का प्रचलन था। जोर्वे चरण में वयस्कों के नीचे के टखने को संभवतः किसी कर्मकांडीय कारण से काट लिया जाता था। कुछ वयस्क शवाधानों में बर्तनों में उपहार भी रखे जाते थे। परवर्ती जोर्वे चरण से एक शवाधान में पंद्रह बर्तन प्राप्त हुए हैं। दो कलशों में दफनाये गये एक बच्चे का शव मिला है जिसके गले में लाल जैस्पर और ताँबे के मनके का हार मिला है। पश्चिम महाराष्ट्र में चंदोली और नेवासा में दफनाये गये कुछ बच्चों के गले में ताँबे के मनके पा ये गये हैं। इनामगाँव के उत्खनन में कुछ विचित्र शवाधान भी प्राप्त हुए हैं। यहाँ से कच्ची मिट्टी का बना एक चार पैरों वाला विशाल अस्थि-कलश मिला है जो 80 से.मी. लम्बा और 50 से.मी. चौड़ा है। इसके भीतर लगभग चालीस वर्षीय एक पुरुष-कंकाल बैठी स्थिति में प्राप्त हुआ है। इसके घुटने के नीचे का भाग काटा नहीं गया है। शव के निकट से एक बर्तन मिला है जिसमें लंबे चंपुओं के साथ एक नाव का अंकन है।
ब्रिटिश अफगान नीति:लॉरेंस से रिपन तक
धर्म और धार्मिक विश्वास (Religion and Religious Beliefs)
सभी ताम्र-पाषाणिक संस्कृतियों में वृषभ एवं मातृदेवी की पूजा का महत्त्व था। ताम्र-पाषाणिक संस्कृतियों के विभिन्न स्थलों पर बड़ी संख्या में मिट्टी के बने बैल प्राप्त हुए हैं। कुछ प्रतिमाओं में कूबड़दार बैल को प्रमुखता से प्रदर्शित किया गया है। इससे लगता है कि बैल इन संस्कृतियों में धार्मिक महत्त्ववाला पशु था। नेवासा और इनामगाँव से बड़ी संख्या में सिररहित नारी-प्रतिमाएँ मिली हैं। इनामगाँव से प्राप्त एक सिररहित नारी-प्रतिमा का वक्षस्थल भारी है और इसके साथ मिट्टी के बैल की प्रतिमा भी बनाई गई है। इनामगाँव की इस नारी-प्रतिमा सहित अन्य प्रतिमाएँ कुछ पुराविदों के अनुसार प्रारंभिक ऐतिहासिक काल की शाकंभरी देवी का प्रतिनिधित्व करती हैं। यह वनस्पति और उर्वरता की देवी थी जिसकी पूजा संभवतः अकाल से बचने के लिए की जाती थी। ताम्र-पाषाणिक संस्कृतियों में यद्यपि पुरुष-प्रतिमाएँ कम मिली हैं, किंतु इनामगाँव से मिली दो कच्ची एवं एक पक्की पुरुष-प्रतिमाओं को देव-प्रतिमा It has been told. इसी प्रकार दायमाबाद से मिले ढ़ाले हुए ठोस ताँबे के हाथी और बैल का भी धार्मिक महत्त्व प्रतीत होता है। कई ताम्र-पाषाणिक स्थलों से अग्निवेदी मिलने का दावा किया गया है जिससे अग्निपूजा की संभावना व्यक्त की गई है।
इस प्रकार ताम्र-पाषाणिक संस्कृतियों में स्थानीय तत्त्वों की प्रधानता के साथ-साथ इनमें परस्पर व्यापारिक-संपर्क और सांस्कृतिक आदान-प्रदान के भी प्रमाण मिलते हैं। धातु-प्रयोक्ता ये पशुचारी कृषक-समूह दूसरी सहस्राब्दी ई.पू. के दौरान विकसित हुए और पहली शताब्दी ई.पू. के आसपास लुप्त हो गये। केवल परवर्ती जोर्वे चरण ही 700 ई.पू. तक बना रहा। इन संस्कृतियों के लुप्त हो जाने का कारण वातावरण में बढ़ती शुष्कता और जलवायु की प्रतिकूलता रही होगी। गोदावरी, ताप्ती और दूसरी घाटियों की ये बस्तियाँ सुनसान हो गई और पाँच-छः लंबे शतकों के बाद चौथी और पाँचवी शताब्दी ई.पू. में द्वितीय नगरीकरण के द्वारा पुनः आबाद हुईं।
सिंधुघाटी की सभ्यता
भारत में प्रागैतिहासिक संस्कृतियाँ :मध्यपाषाण काल और नवपाषाण काल
मगध का उत्कर्ष :हर्यंक, शिशुनाग और नंद वंश का योगदान
नेपोलियन तृतीय :उपलब्धियाँ और मूल्यांकन
समुद्रगुप्त ‘पराक्रमांक’
वारेन हेस्टिंग्स के सुधार और नीतियाँ