The transition from stone to metal was gradual and slow. Man learned to use copper, gold, silver and lastly iron. Earlier people liked gold, but later they started using copper and bronze which were shiny as well as strong metals. In North India, after stone, copper axes, spear heads, etc. were made. The use of bronze in India started with the Copper Age, so this transition period is commonly referred to as 'Copper-Bronze Age' where did it go. Iron was used much later in what was called the 'Iron Age' in India. Named after.
After the use of painted gray pottery, copper and bronze, man gained knowledge of iron metal and used it in the manufacture of weapons and agricultural implements, which revolutionized human life. Change came. Just as the rise of systematic lifestyle took different forms in different regions, similarly the use of iron affected the lifestyle of people in different ways in different regions. As a result of the excavation, evidence of the use of iron-tools from more than seven hundred sites in the northern, eastern, central and southern parts of India have come to light. A survey was conducted to know the antiquity of the use of iron from some major regions of South Asia, which showed that the arrival of the Aryans is not related to the use of iron. Iron ore has been found in large quantities in the areas surveyed.
The major destinations of North India are Atranjikheda (Etah, U.P.), Alamgirpur (Meerut, U.P.), Ahichchhatra (Bareilly, U.P.), Allahpur (U.P.). Meerut, U.P.), Khaloa (Agra, U.P.), Noh (Bharatpur, Rajasthan), Ropar (Punjab), Bateshwar (Agra, U.P.), Hastinapur (Meerut, U.P.), There are Shravasti (U.P.), Kampil (Badayun, U.P.), Jakheda (Etah, U.P.) etc. In these, only the material of the excavation of Hastinapur was duly published. The main character-tradition of these sites is painted gray pottery (PGW). Along with this various iron tools, such as- spear, arrowhead, axe, spade, sickle, knife, plank, nail, pin, tongs, thimble etc. have been found.
Slag is found from Hastinapur and Antarjikheda, indicating that the metal was smelted and cast. Painted gray pot-traditions date back to BC based on the radiocarbon method. It is dated to the eighth-ninth centuries. Black and red pottery (BRW) from Noh and its Doab region Iron has been found with, whose probable date is BC. Around 1400. Painted gray pots from Bhagwanpur, Manda, Dadheri, Alamgirpur, Ropar etc., which are believed to be related to iron, are found immediately after the decline of the Indus civilization (about 1700 BC).
The major Iron Age sites of Eastern India are- Pandurazar, Dhivi, Mahishal, Sonpur, Chirand etc. Here iron-tools have been found with black and red pottery. These include arrows, chisels, nails etc. Slag and furnaces have been found from Mahishadal, which indicate that the metal was locally smelted to make tools. Based on radiocarbon dates, iron started here in BC. 750-700 has been set. Various places of South-East Uttar Pradesh - Jhunsi (Allahabad), Raja Nal Ka Tila (Sonbhadra), Malhar (Chandoli) On the basis of iron-antiquities obtained from Adi, the antiquity of iron is BC. Goes up to 1500.
Political Condition of India in Pre-Gupta Age
Excavations of several archaeological sites in central India (Malwa) and Rajasthan have brought to light iron-tools. The main sites of central India are Eran and Nagda. From here, iron-made double-edged skewers, axes, arrowheads, sickles, knives etc. are found. The early culture of Eran and Nagda is Chalcolithic, to which iron was added later. It was initially believed that the historical era began immediately after the Chalcolithic culture at Eran and Nagda (approximately 700-600 BC) And at the same time iron was being used. But now it is clear that there was some disturbance between the two. The use of iron started during this intervening period. The radiocarbon method has shown that in the Malwa and Eran region, about BC. The use of iron started in 1100. The Iron Age came after the Chalcolithic Age in Malwa. The obtained evidence indicates that there is a constant relationship between the two states. The end of the Chalcolithic age in Malwa was around BC. in 1300 Happened. Near this, iron and slag from a site called Ahad of Rajasthan are found from five deposits of the second level of the first period, whose possible date is BC. Has been fixed around 1500.
Evidence of megalithic cultures is found from various archaeological sites in Andhra, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu in southern India. Brahmagiri, Maski, Pudukau, Chingalput, Shanur, Hallur, etc. are important places. A large number of iron-tools from the megalithic tombs found at these sites, For example, about thirty-three types of tools like swords, daggers, tridents, sticks, axes, shovels, chisels, chisels, sickles, knives, spears etc. have been found with black and red colored pots. Hallur informs of a solstice period between Neolithic and Megalithic Is. The tools found from different sites have been kept in different chronological order. Wheeler The earliest date of this culture is BC. Determine the third-second century, but on the basis of the evidence available from modern research, the antiquity of the use of iron-tools in the south goes back. Thus it can be said that the use of iron in the south dates back to the millennium BC. was started in Radiocarbon date of Hallur instruments is BC. Has been fixed around 1000.
Rigvedic Culture
Antiquity of Iron
There is controversy regarding the antiquity of iron in India. It was previously believed that Hittite race of Central Asia (BC 1800-1200) He had a monopoly on it and he used it first. But now after getting new evidence in this regard, this opinion is not valid. Iron with black and red pottery from Noh (Rajasthan) and its doab region is found whose possible date is BC. is 1400. Some sites, such as- Bhagwanpur, Manda, Dadheri, Alamgirpur, Ropar, etc., are found with the decline of the Sandhav civilization (about 1700 BC) with painted gray deposits, which are believed to be related to iron. There is a mention of armor (varma) in the Rigveda which must have been of iron. Some scholars believe that the Rigvedic Aryans also had knowledge of this. It is clear from the fine quality copper and bronze tools obtained from the Harappan civilization and the copper deposits and garrick wares found from the Ganges valley that the technical knowledge of the then Indians was highly developed. The copper-metal workers of Ganga valley must have been the inventors of iron because two big deposits of cast iron are from Mandi (Himachal) and Narnaul (Punjab) from North India only Meet up.
Excavations at various sites in India provide evidence of iron-user cultures. These are very rich and developed rural cultures, on the background of which the second urbanization became possible in the historical period. The people of these cultures used special types of pottery. They are mainly of gray or gray color and have been painted in black on them. These are called painted gray pots (PGWs). Iron-tools are not found with the early vessels, but later they are found in all the sites. For this reason the painted gray pot culture is called Iron Age culture.
Although most of the sites of Iron Age culture are located in Madhya Pradesh or the Ganges Valley region, which extended from the Sutlej to the Ganges River, its expansion is also found in other areas. The major sites that have been excavated are Ahichchhatra, Hastinapur, Antarjikheda, Alamgirpur, Allahpur, Mathura, Ropar, Shravasti, Noh, Kampilya etc. (North India), Nagda and Eran (Central India). Pandurazar, Dhibi, Mahishal, Sonpur, Chirand etc. are important among the sites from which evidence of Chalcolithic cultures have been found in eastern India. Iron tools have also been found from their later level.
The rise of Magadha:Contribution of Haryanka, Shishunaga and Nanda dynasty
Iron-tools have also been found at the site of megalithic tombs to the south. Thus it is known that B.C. By 1000-600, iron weapons and equipment were being used in abundance in almost all parts of India. Iron-Ghutumal and kilns in the excavations of Hastinapur and Atranjikheda Which shows that the inhabitants were also adept at smelting iron and making tools of various shapes and sizes. At first, only war-related weapons were made from iron, but later agricultural implements, such as sickles, khurpi, fals, etc., were also made. With the use of iron-tools in agriculture, more and more land was made cultivable and production also started in large quantities.
The Indus Valley Civilization dates back to the Bronze Age. After that the Iron Age begins. Both literary and archaeological evidence helps to prove the antiquity of iron in India. Some scholars believe that the first Hittite race in the world, Which BC in Asia Minor (Turkey). Ruled around 1800-2000, used only iron , He had a mighty empire. BC This empire disintegrated around 1200 and only after this revolutionary metal was spread in other countries of the world. Thus BC Iron cannot be imagined in India before 1200 , but the Hittite monopoly on iron does not seem logical.
Excavations at Banaichi in Thailand have found iron in stratified references dating back to BC. 1600 BC 1200 can be considered. Apart from this, iron from Noh and its doab area in India is found with Krishna iron ware, whose probable date is BC. It is said to be around 1400.
The Tenth Level of Families Also from Krishna Lohit pottery with an iron spear point has been found. Evidence of iron has also been found from Ujjain, Vidisha etc. Iron from Bhagwanpura, Alamgir and Ropar is found along with painted gray pottery which is the post Harappan stage. The word 'Nil-Lohit' in Atharvaveda Found, which means the Krishna-lohit pottery. If this is to be accepted as true, then it has to be assumed that iron originated in India with Krishna iron ware and not painted gray ware. Some historians insist on the basis of the evidence of Bhagwanpura to believe that iron was known even in the Rigvedic period.
Government of Chandragupta Maurya
According to Wheeler Iron was first introduced in India by the Hakhamani rulers of Iran to be done. Similarly some other scholars give credit to the Greeks for bringing iron to India, but Greek literature shows that Indians were already familiar with iron before Alexander and the artisans here were skilled in making iron tools. Rigveda also mentions the tips of arrows and spears and Varma (armor) Get. Soma is called upon to build armor at one place and an iron-fort safe from enemies.
A famous sage named Malava assisted the Panchala king Divodas with iron swords in the Dasaragya war. From the Harappan civilization, the copper and bronze instruments of the best quality, the copper deposits found in the Ganges valley and the non-porous pottery, it seems that the copper-metal workers of the Ganges valley were the inventors of iron. Two big iron copper-funds from Mandi (Himachal Pradesh) and Narnaul (Punjab) have been received. Like Africa, there were such primitive castes in India who used to prepare iron with indigenous techniques and traded utensils made by them. These communities had knowledge of iron years before the regular Iron Age. Considering the abundance of iron in central and southern India, it can be inferred that there was an independent early center of iron-technique here. Thus there is evidence of the continuity of iron in India from the prehistoric period itself.
There is clear evidence of iron metal and its widespread use in later Vedic texts. In Atharvaveda 'Lohayas' And the words 'Shyamayyas' are found. Even in Vajasneyi Samhita 'Loh' and 'Shyam' The word has arrived. Some scholars have taken the word 'Loh' in the sense of copper and the word 'Shyam' in the sense of iron. 'Shyamayyas' possibly mentioned in the Atharvaveda Means ferrous metal only.
Atharvaveda mentions iron falls. Not only this, Kathak Samhita mentions heavy plows pulled by twenty-four bulls Get. These plows must have been made of iron plows. इससे स्पष्ट है कि ईसा पूर्व आठवीं शताब्दी में भारतीयों को लोहे का ज्ञान प्राप्त हो चुका था।
भारत-विभाजन :कारण और परिस्थितियाँ
पुरातात्त्विक प्रमाणों से भी भारत में लोहे की प्राचीनता ई.पू. 1000 तक जाती है। प्रमाणों से पता चलता है कि चित्रित धूसर मृद्भांडों के प्रयोक्ता लोहे के ज्ञान से परिचित थे और वे अनेक प्रकार के लौह-उपकरणों का निर्माण करना जानते थे। लोहे के अगणित उपकरण गंगा-यमुना दोआब क्षेत्र में मिलते हैं। इन स्थलों पर जनसंख्या का दबाव उत्तरी हड़प्पा की तुलना में अधिक था।
अहिछत्रा, अतरंजीखेड़ा, माहुरझारी, हस्तिनापुर, मथुरा, रोपड़, श्रावस्ती, काम्पिल्य आदि स्थानों की खुदाइयों से लौहयुगीन संस्कृति के अवशेष मिले हैं। इन स्थानों से लौह-उपकरण, जैसे- भाला, तीर, वसुली, खुरपी, चाकू, कटार आदि मिलते हैं।
अतरंजीखेड़ा के लौह-उपकरण 1025 ई.पू. के बताये जाते हैं। यहाँ से खुदाई में धातु-शोधन करनेवाली भट्ठियों के प्रमाण मिले हैं। माहुरझारी में पाई गई एक कुल्हाड़ी तो इस्पात की बनी है जिसमें 6 प्रतिशत कार्बन की मात्रा है।
पूर्वी भारत में सोनपुर, चिरांद आदि स्थानों से लोहे की बर्छियाँ, छेनी, कीलें आदि मिली हैं जिनका समय आठवीं शताब्दी ई.पू. माना जाता है। मध्य भारत के एरण, नागदा, उज्जैन, कायथा आदि स्थानों के उत्खनन में लौह-उपकरण प्राप्त हुए हैं जिनका काल ईसा पूर्व सातवीं शताब्दी माना जाता है। दक्षिण भारत के महापाषाणिक समाधियों से लोहे के उपकरण बड़ी मात्रा में पाये गये हैं , इस संस्कृति के लोग काले तथा लाल रंग के बर्तनों का प्रयोग करते थे। विद्वानों ने इस संस्कृति का समय ई.पू. एक हजार से लेकर पहली शताब्दी ई. तक निर्धारित किया है। स्पष्ट है कि दक्षिण भारत के लोग ई.पू. 1000 में लोहे के प्रयोग से परिचित थे।
किसी एक क्षेत्र-विशेष में पहली बार लोहे का प्रयोग नहीं प्रारंभ हुआ होगा, अपितु कुछ शताब्दियों के अंदर ही बहुत सारे समुदायों ने लोहे का प्रयोग करना शुरू कर दिया होगा। अनेक विद्वानों का अनुमान है कि दक्षिण भारत में पाषाण काल के बाद लौहकाल प्रारंभ हो गया था, जबकि उत्तरी भारत में पाषाण काल के बाद ताम्र, काँस्य, फिर इसके कई सौ वर्ष बाद लौहकाल आया।
पं. दीनदयाल उपाध्याय:एक परिचय
लोहे के ज्ञान ने मानव-जीवन के विकास में क्रांतिकारी परिवर्तन किया। डी.डी. कोसम्बी के अनुसार बड़े पैमाने पर जंगलों का काटा जाना तथा कृषि-व्यवस्था का गंगाघाटी में अपनाया जाना लोहे के प्रयोग के बिना संभव नहीं था। बुद्धकाल तक आते-आते पूर्वी उत्तर प्रदेश तथा पश्चिमी बिहार में इस धातु का व्यापक रूप से प्रयोग होने लगा। लौह-तकनीक के परिणामस्वरूप कृषि-उत्पादन में अत्यधिक वृद्धि हुई जिससे अधिशेष उत्पादन संभव हुआ। लौह-तकनीक के कारण ही गंगाघाटी में द्वितीय नगरीय क्रांति संभव हुई तथा बड़े-बड़े नगरों की स्थापित हुए।
जैन धर्म और भगवान् महावीर
BC छठी शताब्दी में बौद्धिक आंदोलन
जर्मनी का एकीकरण
प्रथम विश्वयुद्ध:कारण और परिणाम
लॉर्ड रिपन
यूरोप में प्रति धर्मसुधार आंदोलन
काकोरी ट्रेन एक्शन