History of Asia

Social Life in Gupta Period

Gupta-Indian Society Traditional Four Varnas- Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra was divided into As before, the Brahmins held the highest position in the society at this time also. Before the Gupta period, the brahmin had only six functions - study, teaching, conducting worship, performing yagya, giving and receiving charity , The duty of a Kshatriya was to protect the nation by means of weapons. The occupation of Vaishya was commerce. The main duty of a Shudra was to serve.

Brahmin

The caste-based occupation was beginning to loosen during the Gupta period. At this time the Brahmins also started adopting the occupations of other castes, which was called 'Apaddharma ' Having said. There is also evidence of some Brahmin dynasties, such as a Brahmin named Vindhyashakti adopted the duty of a warrior and founded the Vakataka dynasty. Brahmin Mayurasharman of Manavya gotra established Kadamba kingdom in forest dweller And had performed the Ashwamedha Yagya ritual eighteen times. Matrivishnu, the son of Brahmin Indravishnu, was also successful in attaining the position of 'Maharaja', who was a feudatory of the Guptas. Apart from Kshatriya karma, Brahmins also started adopting occupations of other castes. Mrichhakatikam It is known that a Brahmin named Charudatta used to work as a merchant. There was a great emphasis on the purity of Brahmins and in some Gupta texts Brahmins are instructed not to accept the food offered by Shudras. According to Yajnavalkya graduates should not eat the food of Shudras and impure , but Jupiter allowed Brahmins to take food from Shudras and Dasas in times of crisis provided.

It was a rule in the law that Shudraputra of higher varna would get the least share in the property , According to Vishnu, the share of a Brahmin's Shudraputra will be half of the father's property , The Brahmin had the right to take the buried treasure in full, but if the treasure was found by the Kshatriya, then one-fourth would be kept by the king, one-fourth for the Brahmin and half himself. If the Nikhat Nidhi is found by a Vaishya, then one-fourth will be kept by the king, half for the brahmin and one-fourth to himself. But the Shudra would divide it into twelve parts and give five parts each to the brahmin and the king and keep two parts himself. Thus via character-discriminating rules In this era also, efforts were made to maintain the monopoly of the Brahmins. Kautilya in Arthashastra and Varahamihira in Brihatsamhita gave separate settlements for the four Varnas done.

Kshatriya

Brahmin and Kshatriya were jointly 'Dwij in Gupta period ’ and the unity between Brahmin and Kshatriya has been emphasized. This seems to suggest that they were challenged by Vaishyas and Shudras dissatisfied with the traditional social order. Although the work of the Kshatriyas was the most important in the society, who used to rule and conduct military operations and protect the country and society, but they did not get the same rights as Brahmins and their place in the society was second. Hiuan Tsang praised the devotion of the Kshatriyas and called them innocent, simple, pious, straightforward and thrifty. According to him Kshatriya was the caste of the king. In Hindu scriptures it was permitted for the Kshatriyas to adopt the karma of the lower castes in times of crisis. According to the Indore copper plate inscription of Skandagupta, some Kshatriyas also worked as Vaishyas.

Vaishya

Vaishya's work was agriculture and animal husbandry. During the Gupta period, he was called 'Vanik ' 'Shreshthi' and 'Sarthvaah' Having said. Hiuen Tsang has also considered them to be of business caste. According to the Puranas, their work was agriculture, animal husbandry and commerce. The Gupta literature shows that Vaishyas were attractive and in Amarkosh also the Karsakas were counted in the Vaishya class Huh. Vishnu and Yajnavalkya show that the field was given to Shudras for half the produce, it is clear from this that Shudra is also attractive Used to be. There is also an example of the Vaishya class adopting the occupation of Kshatriya. The Gupta rulers themselves were probably Vaishyas. In fact, the Vaishya class included people from many professions, such as farmers, traders, blacksmiths, sonars, carpenters, tellers, weavers, cattle herders, garlands etc. Like Brahmins and Kshatriyas, Vaishyas have also been allowed to adopt other deeds during the period of objection.

Shudra

According to Manu Shudra's only duty on behalf of God is to serve the three varnas Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas But during this period, adopting a liberal approach, sudras should adopt military profession Including permission to be a trader, artisan and agriculturist have provided. Yajnavalkya has approved the Shudras to be traders, farmers and artisans. The description of Hiuen Tsang and Narsimha Purana shows that Shudras took up agricultural work was taken.

Repeated mention of Shudras as tax-paying peasants during this period Which is an indicator of their improving economic condition. But in this period also the service of other varnas is said to be the religion of Shudra. According to the Kamasutra, apart from providing food and drink, they should get monthly or annual salary. Shilp and Bhrti are two of their duties in Vayu Purana. Now craft-work had come into the normal occupation of the Shudras. list of craftsmen in Amarkosh also in Shudra class Which is proof that the Shudras were engaged in all kinds of crafts and arts.

In the Gupta period commerce was also the business of Shudras It was believed. Brihaspati has told the general duty of the Shudras to sell all kinds of things and in the Puranas has allowed the Shudras to make a living by buying and selling and trading profit. Probably a large section of the Shudras in the society also worked as laborers. All eleven synonyms of wages in Amarkosh are in Shudra class have come. The rates of remuneration described by Brihaspati show that the wages of the cultivators had doubled in the last part of the Gupta period. They worked without food and clothing, which made it appear that they were no longer dependent on their employers for sustenance. Overall The condition of Shudras is relatively satisfactory This was because in the Dharmashastras, the Shudras are clearly described as separate from the untouchables and slaves.

Religiously Sanyasa ashram barred for Shudra It has been told and in Vishnu Purana it has been said that if a Brahmin is helpful in the sacrifice of a Shudra, he will go to hell Will happen. It is said in Brahmanda Purana that giving the residual food of Shradh to Shudra does not yield fruit of Shradh Is. Despite this, there are signs of improvement in the religious condition of the Shudras. According to Matsya Purana, if a Shudra remains immersed in devotion, does not drink alcohol, keeps his senses under control and is fearless, then he too can get salvation Is. In the Markandeya Purana, it is the duty of a Shudra to give charity and perform Yajna. Yajnavalkya offered 'Namah' to the Shudra class instead of Omkar Permission has been given to perform Panchamahayagya using the word. Shudras had got the right to listen to the Ramayana, Mahabharata and sometimes the Vedas. Now Sankhya and Yoga philosophy were no longer taboo for Shudras and examples of many educated Shudras are also found in Gupta period.

New research seems to suggest that the Shudras were dissatisfied with the then social order. In the texts, he has been called the king's destroyer, opponent, violent, arrogant, angry, liars, greedy, atheist, lazy, impure, etc. This suggests that the relations between the Shudras and the ruling class were not very cordial. This is the reason why the Shantiparva of Mahabharata emphasizes the need for reconciliation between Brahmins and Kshatriyas. Possibly The conflict between the Varnas did not end in the Gupta period, but there was some improvement in the condition of the Shudra class was.

mixed races ( Mixed Castes)

Many mixed castes are also mentioned in the Gupta memories, such as - Murdhabhishkta, Ambastha, Parshava, Ugra and Karan , Among them, mainly the number of Ambastha, Ugra, Parshav was more in the Gupta society. Brahmin male and Vaishya female progeny 'Ambashtha' has been said. In Vishnu Purana, he is considered a resident of the river bank. Manu has described their main occupation as medicine. The origin of Parshav caste is believed to be from Brahmin male and Shudra female, they are also called Nishad , According to Gautam, caste originated from Vaishya man and Shudra woman is 'Ugra' But the Smritis believe that the origin of this caste is Kshatriya male and Shudra female happened from. Their main task was to make a living by taking out the animals from inside the bill.

untouchability ( Untouchability)

According to Fahien, an untouchable (untouchable) class existed in the Gupta society. Panini mentions it as 'exiled As a Shudra. This caste followed the lowest instinct. The description of the untouchables, especially the Chandalas in the texts of the Gupta period is very derogatory and they are called unholy, untruthful, thieves, quarrelsome, angry and greedy Having said. The main occupations of the Chandalas were cleaning the streets or streets, guarding the cremation grounds, hanging criminals and catching thieves at night. Probably this caste originated from Shudra man and Brahmin woman (pratiloma marriage) Was. In the Smritis, a distinction has been made between the Shudras and the Untouchables, but in the Amarakosha, the Varnasankaras and the Untouchables have been kept under the Shudra caste.

In fact in this period the emphasis is on the purity of the Brahmins as much as on the impurity of the untouchables. If the sight of a 'Dwij' fell on an untouchable, he would become impure and he had to perform religious rituals for his purification. Fahien's description suggests that he had to live outside the settlement and play drums when entering the settlement was so that people could avoid their touch after being informed of his arrival.

Not only did untouchability develop during the Gupta period, but the number of Chandalas also increased. In the Vindhya forest, people of the Shabar caste lived who used to offer human flesh to their gods. A caste called Domb also probably appeared as an independent race at this time They are also considered as untouchables in Jain sources. Thus the untouchables were considered Shudras in principle, but in practice they were separate and their condition was very pathetic.

Slavery ( Slavery)

Slavery was prevalent during the Gupta period. Manu introduced seven types of slaves Mentioned, but fifteen types according to Narada There were slaves, the main ones were- 1. Slave obtained (from gifts etc.), 2. Slave given by master, 3. Slave made because of not paying debt, 4. Slave lost by betting (playing dice etc.) in), 5. self-serving slave, 6. enslavement for a fixed period of time, 7. slave made by falling in slave's love and 8. self-selling slave (by selling oneself). Mrichchatika shows that the slave had no will of his own.

In the Mauryan period, the slaves actively participated in the production work, but at this time the slaves were kept separate from the production work. Narada and Brihaspati have clarified that slaves are used only in unholy works Were. This shows that the condition of the slaves at this time was pathetic. Yajnavalkya, Narada and Katyayana have said that dasa should be below the varna of the lord , According to Katyayan Slavery is not for a Brahmin and he cannot become a Brahmin's slave either , Even if a brahmin becomes a slave of a brahmin, then he should do virtuous work like studying Vedic. But this does not mean that slavery was limited to the Shudras only.

Also get information about slaves. Amarkosh Mein 'Dasi Sabham' It has been described, from which it seems that slaves also existed during the Gupta period. Jain texts reveal that daisies and cherries were taken from primitive castes as well She was When a slave gave birth to a son of her master, she became free Was. Probably the first attempt to free the slaves from slavery was made by Narada because he was the first to ordain the ritual of liberation.

Many evidence shows that slavery was weakening during the Gupta period. According to Ramsharan Sharma, due to the weakening of the varna system, there was a weakness in slavery , The rule of the caste system was that Shudra should be made slave, but from the descriptions of the Gupta Puranas, it seems that Vaishyas and Shudras were not following their Varna-dharma, due to which a situation of severe Varna-crisis had arisen.

In many Gupta Puranas, Buddhist Jatakas and some Jain texts 'Kaliyuga ’ has been described, which is probably an indicator of changes in the mode of production. पता चलता है कि एक ओर अंत्यजों का मध्यों में रूपांतरण हो रहा था तो दूसरी ओर कृषि और व्यापार में लगे वैश्य शूद्रों के निकट आ रहे थे। विष्णु पुराण में कहा गया है कि वैश्य कृषि एवं व्यापार का परित्याग कर शूद्रों के व्यवसाय को अपनायेंगे और तुच्छ शिल्पी (कारुकर्मोंपजीविनः ) बन जायेंगे। लगता है कि भूमिगत संपत्ति के बँटवारे, धार्मिक भूमिदानों और कुछ विदेशी आक्रमणों द्वारा उत्पन्न राजनीतिक अस्थिरता के कारण बड़े पैमाने पर दासों की छँटनी कर दी गई जिससे दास प्रथा क्षीण होने लगी थी। लगभग 600 ई. में रचित मनुस्मृति पर भारुचि की टीका में दासों के संपत्ति-संबंधी अधिकारों का व्यापक वर्णन मिलता है।

वस्तुतः शहरीकरण के पतन, मुद्रा-व्यवस्था के हृास, उत्पादन की सीमित ग्राम-अर्थव्यवस्था से जिस नवीन सामंतीय उत्पादन प्रणाली का विकास हो रहा था, उसमें दासों के रूपांतरण और कृषकों एवं शिल्पियों के दमन एवं शोषण की प्रवृत्ति बढ़ती जा रही थी। यही कारण है कि अब बाध्य श्रम (बेगार) केवल राजाओं द्वारा ही नहीं, भूमिगत कुलीन वर्ग तथा भूमि-अनुदान प्राप्तकर्त्ताओं द्वारा भी लिया जाने लगा था।

कायस्थ (Kayastha)

गुप्तकालीन अभिलेखों में कायस्थ जाति का उल्लेख मिलता है जिसकी गणना किसी उपजाति में नहीं थी। इस काल के अभिलेखों में इनका उल्लेख प्रथम कायस्थ या ज्येष्ठ कायस्थ में रूप में Has happened. संभवतः ब्राह्मण, क्षत्रिय आदि जो लेखक अथवा अहल्कार का काम करते थे, कायस्थ कहलाते थे। वस्तुतः भूमि और भू-राजस्व के हस्तांतरण के कारण कायस्थ जाति का जन्म हुआ , जिन्होंने ब्राह्मण लेखकों के एकाधिकार को समाप्त किया। यही कारण है कि ब्राह्मण रचनाओं में उनके प्रति अपमानजनक और तिरस्कारपूर्ण विचार प्रकट किये गये हैं। इस जाति के लोग मूलतः राजकीय सेवाओं से संबद्ध थे जो लेखाकरण, आय-व्यय और भूमिकर के अधिकारी होते थे। इनका सर्वप्रथम उल्लेख याज्ञवल्क्य ने किया है। गुप्तकाल तक कायस्थ केवल एक वर्ग के रूप में थे, जो कालांतर में एक जाति के अंतर्गत आ गये।

स्त्री-दशा (Woman’s Condition)

गुप्तकालीन साहित्य और कला में नारी का आदर्श रूप परिलक्षित होता है, किंतु व्यावहारिक दृष्टि से समाज में उनका स्थान गौण था। साहित्य में स्त्रियों के सम्मान और मर्यादा का वर्णन है और पत्नी के बिना जीवन शून्य माना गया है। गुप्तकाल के सिक्कों पर कुमारदेवी तथा लक्ष्मी के चित्रों का अंकन उच्च वर्ग की स्त्रियों के सम्मान के सूचक हैं। पत्नी को सखी, सचिव तथा प्रिय शिष्या कहा गया है (गृहिणी सचिवः सखी मिथः प्रियशिष्या , पाणिग्रहण के कारण भार्या पुरुष की सहधर्मिणी मानी जाती थी जो समस्त रोगों और दुःखों का निदान थी। किंतु व्यावहारिक जीवन में पत्नी व्यक्तिगत संपत्ति समझी जाती थी, जो किसी को भी दान दी जा सकती थी और गिरवी रखी जा सकती थी।

गुप्तकाल में बाल विवाह और सतीप्रथा जैसी प्रथाएँ दिखाई देती Huh. पति के मरने पर पत्नी को सती होने के लिए प्रेरित किया जाता था। उत्तर भारत की कुछ सैनिक जातियों के परिवारों में बड़े पैमाने पर सती होने की प्रथा उल्लेख है। मृच्छकटिक में चारुदत्त की पत्नी सती होने के लिए प्रस्तुत दिखाई गई है। प्रथम सती होने का प्रमाण 510 ई. के भानुगुप्त के एरण के अभिलेख से मिलता है जिसमें गोपराज (सेनापति) की मृत्यु पर उसकी पत्नी के सती होने का वर्णन है। यद्यपि जनसाधारण में सती होने का व्यापक प्रचलन नहीं था, किंतु विधवाओं की स्थिति अत्यंत दयनीय थी। उच्च वर्ग की विधवाओं का जीवन अधिक कष्टपूर्ण था। बृहस्पति के अनुसार पति के मरने पर जो पतिव्रता साध्वी निष्ठा का पालन करती है, वह सब पापों को छोड़कर पतिलोक को प्राप्त होती है।

गुप्तकालीन अनेक स्मृतियों में विधवाओं के लिए ब्रह्मचर्य, व्रत, नियम आदि का विधान किया गया है। नारद एवं पराशर स्मृति में विधवा विवाह का समर्थन किया गया है। महाभारत में पति की मृत्यु के बाद देवर से विवाह के लिए अनुमति दी गई है। वशिष्ठ ने संयोग के पूर्व ही पति के मर जाने पर बाला को अक्षतयोनि तथा उसके पुनर्विवाह को लोकाचार के अनुकूल बताया है-

 पाणिग्रहे मृते बाला केवलं मं संस्कृता।

सा चेदिक्षतयोनिः स्यात्पुनः संस्कारर्महति।।

इस समय उच्च वर्ग की कुछ स्त्रियों के विदुषी और कलाकार होने का उल्लेख मिलता है, जिससे लगता है कि उच्च वर्ग की स्त्रियों को थोड़ी शिक्षा अवश्य दी जाती थी। किंतु याज्ञवल्क्य स्मृति में कन्या के उपनयन और वेदाध्ययन का निषेध किया गया है। अमरकोष में स्त्री-शिक्षा के लिए आचार्य, उपाध्यायीय तथा उपाध्याया शब्दों का प्रयोग किया गया है। महिला दार्शनिकों एवं विदूषियों के कुछ उदाहरण मिलते हैं। राजशेखर की काव्यमीमांसा से पता चलता है कि स्त्रियाँ भी कवियित्री होती थीं। अभिज्ञान शाकुंतलम् में अनुसूया को इतिहास का ज्ञाता बताया गया है। विविध कलाओं में निपुण स्त्रियों का भी उल्लेख मिलता है, जैसे मालती माधव की मालती चित्रकला में निपुण थी।

सामान्यतया कन्याओं का विवाह बारह या तेरह वर्ष की अवस्था में कर दिया जाता था, इसलिए कन्याओं का उपनयन बंद हो गया। अल्पायु में विवाह की प्रथा के विकास के कारण स्त्री शिक्षा में बाधा पड़ी, जिससे गुप्तकाल में स्त्रियों की सामाजिक स्थिति में गिरावट आई। लगता है कि गुप्तकाल में पर्दा प्रथा का अधिक विकास नहीं हुआ। फाह्यान एवं ह्वेनसांग ने इस प्रथा का उल्लेख नहीं किया है। साहित्यिक स्रोतों से ज्ञात होता है कि केवल उच्च वर्ग की स्त्रियों में पर्दा प्रथा का प्रचलन था। अजंता या एलोरा के चित्रों व मूर्तियों में कही भी स्त्रियों को पर्दे में नहीं दिखाया गया है।

किंतु गुप्तकाल में स्त्रियों के धन-संबंधी अधिकारों में वृद्धि हुई। विज्ञानेश्वर के अनुसार स्त्री के स्त्रीधन पर प्रथम अधिकार उसकी पुत्रियों का होता Is. याज्ञवल्क्य एवं बृहस्पति ने स्त्री को पति की संपत्ति का उत्तराधिकारिणी माना है। स्त्रियों के संपत्ति-संबंधी अधिकार की महत्त्वपूर्ण व्याख्या याज्ञवल्क्य ने की है। याज्ञवल्क्य स्मृति के अनुसार पुत्र के अभाव में पुरुष की संपत्ति पर उसकी पत्नी का प्रथम अधिकार होता था और उसके बाद उसकी पुत्रियों का , बृहस्पति और नारद ने भी कहा है कि कन्या भी पुत्र के समान संतान होती है, इसलिए पुत्र के अभाव में उसका संपत्ति पर अधिकार होना चाहिए। कात्यायन ने भी पत्नी को ‘धनहरी’ (संपत्ति प्राप्त करनेवाली ) कहा है और उसके जीवित न रहने पर कन्या को। किंतु नारद जैसे शास्त्रकारों के अनुसार संतानहीन व्यक्ति की संपत्ति राज्य को अधिग्रहीत कर लेनी चाहिए और राजा का यह कर्त्तव्य है कि वह विधवा का पालन-पोषण करे।

गणिकाएँ (Courtesans)

गुप्तकालीन समाज में गणिकाएँ नागरिक जीवन का सामान्य अंग थीं। वेश्यावृति करनेवाली स्त्रियों को ‘गणिका ‘ कहा जाता था। कामसूत्र में गणिका को दिये जाने वाले प्रशिक्षण से लगता है कि इस व्यवसाय की अधिक माँग थी। कालीदास ने विदिशा की गणिकाओं के साथ साहसी नवयुवकों की क्रीड़ाओं का वर्णन किया है। सामान्यतया गणिका-वृत्ति को निंदनीय माना जाता था। कहा गया है कि ‘गणिका तो जूते में पड़ी किंकड़ी के समान है, जो एक बार घुसने के उपरान्त बड़ी कठिनाई से निकाली जाती है।’

वेश्यागामी को समाज में अच्छी दृष्टि से नहीं देखा जाता था। वृद्ध वेश्याओं को ‘कुट्टनी ’ कहा जाता था जो नई वेश्याओं के लिए मार्गदर्शक का काम करती थी और इसके लिए उनकी आय में से एक हिस्सा ले लेती थीं। दयनीय दशा में पड़ी युवतियों को गणिका-वृत्ति सिखाना और युवकों को पथ-भ्रष्ट करना उनका कार्य था। कुट्टनीमतम् के रचयिता दामोदरगुप्त ने भी लिखा है कि जो लोग कुट्टनी और वेश्या के चंगुल में नहीं पड़ेंगे, वे जीवन में सुखी रहेंगे।

मेघदूत तथा पुराणों से पता चलता है कि देवदासियों का भी एक वर्ग था जो मंदिरों से संबद्ध था। जो सुंदरियाँ देव-मंदिरों में नियुक्त की जाती थीं, उनका कार्य देवता के सम्मुख नृत्य करना, गान करना और संगीत का कार्यक्रम प्रस्तुत करना था। कालीदास ने मेघदूत में उज्जयिनी के महाकाल मंदिर में देवदासियों के नृत्य-गान का वर्णन किया है।