Polity described in Sangam literature
State System
The Sangam poetry outlines the development of the state system for the first time in South India. These writings allude to a process of historical development in which we find a decline in the number of tribes, but they continue to exist as well-organized units with the king. The state had gone as an organized political structure but it was still not stable. Although the democratic concept was not yet strengthened, but the administration, despite being monarchical, ran on democratic principles.
Kingship
'Chol' of the three dynasties of the Sangam period The irrigated and fertile Kaveri ruled the valley. His capital 'Yuraiyur' was in 'Pandya' Pastoralists and ruled the coastal parts and their capital 'Madurai' was in 'Cher' His capital was in the hilly region in the west 'Vanji' (Kurur). The Sangam works mention the names of so many kings that it becomes difficult to determine their lineage and chronology.
Yet scholars have confirmed the lineage of the Chola kings—Uruvaprefer Ilanjetcheni, his son Karikala and two sons of Karikala, Nalan-Killi and Nedun Killi. The Pandya dynasty has confirmed kings named Muthukudumi Peruvaludi, Araipadai Kadantha Nedunzelian, Verriverchellian and Talayalankanathu Cheruvenara Nedul Gelian. Similarly, among the kings of the Chera dynasty, Imayararamban Nedumkeralatan, Cheran Senguttuvan and Mantaram Cheral Irumporai have been attested.
The government in the Sangam period was monarchical. The king was called Ventan. He was the head of both the society and the government. As the head of the society, he used to inaugurate Indrootsav and dance festivals. He used to assume important titles at the time of coronation. He was considered equivalent to the gods. The ancient Tamilians considered three objects - the mridanga, the scepter, and the white umbrella as the principal symbols of the king.
According to the Sangam literature, the kingdom was inherited from father to son. The responsibility of the king was to maintain peace and order in the state. He looked after the welfare of the subjects and worked for their welfare. The king used to visit his kingdom and consulted the ministers in matters of governance which were referred to in Sangam literature as 'Surram' Having said. Surram refers to the people who lived near the king to give advice when needed.
Feudal
In the Sangam period, there were two types of 'feudal' under the king. There were- (1.) Velir and (2.) A-Velir. Some of them proved to be great patrons of feudal literature. Some prominent among these chieftains were the Palayan Maran of Mohur (near modern Madurai), Nanan Venman and Villavan Kothai (both near the western coast of the peninsula), Naliya Kodan of Oimamanadu (modern Southern Aketi), Tithian (Tinne Valley region) and A group of Velir chieftains, such as Parambunad Kapari, Velpagan of Palni region, Velivvi of Pudukottai region, Vel Avi and Irukkuvel of Kodumbalur, and others.
In the post-Sangam period, the monarchical power became stronger and the status of the traditional chieftains reduced to that of state officials. In the post-Sangam period, these feudatories and state officials strengthened their position and the king became weak.
Governance
Various councils were formed to control the policies of the king. Silappadikaram discusses two types of councils- (1) perunkulu and (2) emperayam. The perunkulum was a council of ministers of five members, while the emperayam or the general assembly had eight members. Both councils were administrative bodies, although their work was generally of advisory nature, yet the king did not reject their advice. The main function of these councils was judicial. According to Maduraikkanji, the heads of these institutions were called ampekuls.
No matter how majestic the ancient kings may have been, the form of government 'nature-limited' or 'popular-monarchy' Why is it? This system has been stronger in South India than in North India. Every local unit, however small and in whatever corner it was located, was governed by a local assembly. There have also been mentions of institutions named Avai and Marnam in the Sangam literature. Such gatherings are usually called 'Arankuravaiyam' It is said that she was famous for her right judgment. They can be called the ancestors of our modern Panchayat system.
Immunity
The great kings and feudatories maintained large and stable armies. There were frequent wars between the two states. Their purpose was not only to protect their state and to increase their jurisdiction by occupying the territory of the neighboring state, but also to save the people who were suffering from tyranny or misrule of neighboring states. Sometimes wars were also fought to establish marital relations. Every man of the state trained himself for war. In addition to the standing army maintained by the kings, there were trained soldiers throughout the state who could join the king's army as a salaried soldier if needed.
According to the Sangam literature, the king had Chaturangini sena, i.e. chariot army, gaj sena, horse army and infantry. The Chera kings also had a navy which guarded the sea port. The ships of other kings could not enter the Chera kingdom. In the Sangam texts there is also a mention of military cantonments in the war areas. The king's camp was grand and he slept under his white umbrella in the cantonment too. The king was always surrounded by his soldiers.
The soldiers sleeping around the king were without swords. The cantonments of ordinary soldiers were made of reed leaves on separate sides and paddy leaves were planted on their tops, from which the paddy kept hanging. Their wives accompanied the generals and high-ranking officials on war campaigns, and they stayed in camps specially built for their husbands. The king used to go to the camps of soldiers and officials and inquire about their well being. He used to do this at night and even in the rain.
The Tamil subjects had great respect for the warrior and for the soldier who attained martyrdom in battle, but there was a feeling of deep contempt for the wound on the back. The king or commander who was wounded on his back, that king or general used to fast and give up his life. Memorials were erected in the memory of the warriors who were martyred in the war. Prisoners were tortured in state prisons.
The Sangam administration was in many respects influenced by the political ideas and institutions of North India. Many kings of the Sangam period considered their clan to be descended from gods like Shiva and Vishnu and ancient sages. The ancestors of many kings participated in the war of Mahabharata. The rulers of the Sangam age were the protectors of art, literature and culture and used to organize huge yagyas.
Economy described in Sangam literature
Agriculture
The prosperity of the people of the Sangam age was rooted in the fertility of the land and the expansion of trade. Maduraikkanji considers agriculture and trade as the main forces of economic development. Silappadikaram also connects the happiness and prosperity of the people with agriculture. Agriculture was the main source of revenue for the state. The subjects took special interest in agriculture and animal husbandry.
In the Sangam poems, milk and milk products - curd, butter, ghee, buttermilk etc. are often mentioned. The importance of livestock has been mentioned in many works of Sangam literature. Neighboring states often attacked to plunder livestock. One of the main duties of the king was to protect the livestock of his kingdom. Paddy and sugarcane had a prominent place in the crops grown on a large scale during the Sangam period.
Other crops included a variety of fruits, gram, beans, valil (sweet potato), jackfruit, mango, banana, coconut, betel nut, saffron, round pepper, turmeric, etc. The kings of the Sangam age took many measures for the development of agriculture. Karikala Chola dug a pond for irrigation. His Kaveri embankment proved to be very useful for agriculture.
The discussion of benefits in agriculture due to irrigation from the pond is found in many poems. Maduraikkanji refers to the rivers that fill the ponds on the East-Sea side.
Industry
Various types of industrial activities took place on a large scale in the Sangam age. Many types of artisans - ironsmiths, coppersmiths, goldsmiths, kumbhakars, sculptors, painters and weavers etc. have been mentioned in the poems. Manimekalai discusses the association of architects from Maharashtra, ironworkers from Malwa, woodworkers from Greece and Rome and jewelers from Magadha with their Tamil counterparts.
Occupation was usually hereditary, meaning that the work of the father was taken over by the son. According to Silappadikaram people of different occupations lived in different streets. Due to this there was progress in various trades and industries, as well as the people associated with the business also mastered their respective fields.
The art of construction also attained heights in this era. Silappadikaram mentions such boats whose front were in the shape of horse, gaj and lion. Growing trade relations with the Mediterranean world and with other distant countries could only have been possible if strong and remote navigable ships were built. Other construction works included bridges, drains, lighthouses, town halls, etc.
Painting was also very popular in the Sangam age. Paripadal 'Madura' (Madurai) mentions a museum of paintings and the sale of paintings in Silappadikaram. The walls of the houses, ceilings, clothes, bedspreads, curtains and other things of daily use were also painted. Weaving art was very popular among Tamils during that period.
In Sangam literature, 'design' of woven flower has been discussed time and again. Clothes were also woven from cotton, silk, wool and rat hair. There was also a custom to dye the yarn. Indian silk was in great demand by Roman merchants because of its fineness. 'Weaving' There was a domestic industry in which all the members of the family, especially the women participated.
The tanners, kumbhakars and other artisans also contributed to the industrial development. In this era, Greek sculpture and other foreign crafts also entered South India. 'Nedunalvadai' and 'Padiruppattu' Early literary works refer to beautiful lamps, Roman characters and wine glasses made by foreigners. Greco-Roman influences can be seen in the sculptures of Amaravati (Andhra Pradesh) and Sri Lanka during that period.
Business
In the Sangam Age, Tamil merchants had trade links with the Mediterranean countries, Greece, Rome, Egypt, China, South-East Asia and Sri Lanka. Literary works like Silappadikaram, Manimekalai and Patitanappalai, etc. repeatedly discuss the relationship with Greek and Roman merchants.
Indo-Rome trade was at its height during this period. The Periplus of Erythrion and other accounts of foreigners like Pliny, Ptolemy, Strabo and Petronius mention many ports and trading items of that period. Archaeological excavations at many sites also confirm the trade relations between Tamil merchants and other countries. Coins of those countries have been found in large numbers from many places in Tamil Nadu.
The Sangam texts discuss the ports of Musiri, Puhar, Yakaveri Pattinam and Kokkai. These ports belong to three great rulers of that period. Besides these, the Periplus mentions the ports of Tondi, Musiri and Komari (Kanyakumari), Kolchi (Kodki), Poduke (Arikamedu) and Sopatma.
According to the Periplus, three types of ships were used in South India - small coastal vessels, large coastal vessels and sea-going vessels. There is a discussion of large ships called Kolandiya which used to reach the Ganges river from the coast of Tamil Nadu.
The goods exported to Rome made a good profit. Live animals and birds like tigers, leopards, monkeys and peacocks were sent to Rome. The main animal-products of export included ivory and pearls. Among the botanical products, aromatic substances and spices, golki, ginger, cardamom, clove, wood, etc., coconut, banana, jaggery, teak, sandalwood, a special type of cotton cloth known as Argaru uraiyar, etc. were the main export items. Minerals like diamond, vaidurya, steel, low-value gems, etc. were also exported.
Items imported from Rome included coins, coral, honey, glass, tin and jewellery. Garlands made at many sites in South India during that period have been found at many sites in South-East Asia. This confirms the maritime relations between these regions. During the Sangam period, there were settlements of foreign merchants in many cities of Tamil region.
तमिलों की समृद्धि में र्सिफ विदेशी-व्यापार का ही योगदान नहीं था अपितु विभिन्न नगरीय केंद्रों के जुड़ने से स्थानीय व्यापारिक नेटवर्क ने आंतरिक व्यापार को फूलने-फलने के पर्याप्त अवसर प्रदान किए। ‘सिलप्पादिकरम’ में पुहार के बाजार की गालियों का उल्लेख हुआ है। मदुराइकांजी पांडयों की राजधानी मदुराई के बाजार का उल्लेख करता है।
तटीय पत्तनों और शहरों के अतिरिक्त तमिल प्रदेश के भीतरी इलाकों में भी नगर-केंद्रों का विकास हुआ। इनमें मदुरै, करुर, पेरुर, कोडुमानाल, उरैयुर, कांचीपुरम, इत्यादि प्रसिद्ध हैं। एक और पूर्वीतट पर कोरकोई ‘मोती’ निकालने के लिए प्रसिद्ध था तो दूसरी ओर भीतरी इलाके में कोडुमानाल ‘वैदूर्य’ के लिए। दूर-दराज के गाँव भी व्यापारिक नेटवर्क से जुड़े थे।
भीतरी प्रदेश के व्यापारिक परिवहन के लिए पशुओं द्वारा खींचे जाने वाले छकड़े प्रमुख साधन थे। व्यापार अधिकांशतः अदला-बदली के आधार पर चलता था। तमिल प्रदेश की भौगोलिक विविधता के कारण विभिन्न क्षेत्रों के बीच उत्पादों का विनिमय आवश्यक था। साथ ही मुद्रा का उपयोग भी होता था।
व्यापार राजकीय राजस्व का महत्त्वपूर्ण स्रोत था। व्यापारियों से ‘पारगमन-कर’ लिया जाता था। युद्ध में लूटा गया माल भी राजकीय कोष में वृद्धि करता था किंतु कृषि से होने वाली आय ही युद्ध और राजनीतिक संगठन का मुख्य आधार थी। संगम साहित्य में किसानों से लिए जाने वाले करों की जानकारी नहीं मिलती।
संगम साहित्य का महत्त्व
संगम साहित्य प्राचीन तमिल समाज की सांस्कृतिक, साहित्यिक, धार्मिक, राजनीतिक और ऐतिहासिक जानकारियों के लिए अत्यंत उपयोगी है। संगम साहित्य ने अपनी पश्चवर्ती साहित्यिक परम्पराओं को अत्यंत प्रभावित किया। दक्षिण भारत के प्राचीन इतिहास के लेखन के लिये संगम साहित्य की उपयोगिता अंदिग्ध है। इस साहित्य में उस समय के चोल, चेर और पाण्ड्य नामक तीन राजवंशों का उल्लेख हुआ है।
संगम साहित्य ही एकमात्र ऐसा साहित्यिक स्रोत है जो सुदूर दक्षिण के जनजीवन पर सर्वप्रथम विस्तृत और स्पष्ट प्रकाश डालता है। संगम साहित्य से दक्षिण भारत के राजनीतिक इतिहास की तिथियां नहीं मिलतीं किंतु संगम साहित्य वहाँ के सामजिक, आर्थिक, धार्मिक और राजनीतिक जीवन के सम्बन्ध में प्रचुर सामग्री प्रस्तुत करता है। इसी साहित्य से पता चलता है कि दक्षिण के तीन प्रमुख राज्य- पांड्य, चोल और चेर परस्पर संघर्षरत रहे। संगम साहित्य से दक्षिण और उत्तर भारत की संस्कृतियों के सफल समन्वय का स्पष्ट चित्र प्राप्त होता है।
यह साहित्य बताता है कि दक्षिण के तीनों राज्यों ने प्राकृतिक संसाधनों का लाभ उठाते हुए किस प्रकार विदेशी व्यापार का प्रसार किया। उनके व्यापारिक सम्बन्ध कैसे थे, इस बारे में भी हमें यथेष्ट जानकारी देता है। संगम कविताएँ तमिल भाषा की पहली सशक्त रचनाएँ मानी जाती हैं। इन कविताओं में संस्कृत भाषा के अनेक शब्दों के तमिल भाषा में आत्मसात करने के प्रमाण भी प्राप्त होते हैं।
यह साहित्य इस बात का ज्वलंत प्रमाण देता है कि दक्षिण की द्रविड़ और उत्तर की आर्य संस्कृति ने परस्पर बहुत कुछ आदान-प्रदान किया और देश की एक समन्वित संस्कृति प्रदान की जिसे सामान्यतः हिन्दू संस्कृति भी कहा जाता है।