Education
The Sandhavas knew how to read and write, so it is estimated that they must have developed a certain method of teaching. Some wooden planks have been found in the excavation. These plates were written with wooden pens. On the basis of the large number of toys found in the excavation, it is estimated that toys must have been used in providing direct knowledge to the children. The presence of definite means of measurement suggests that children were taught arithmetic.
On the basis of the decimal units of the weights found in the excavation, it is also estimated that the Sandhavas were familiar with the decimal system. It is clear from the definite plan of the building and the municipal corporation that the students were taught high principles of geometry. Scholars believe that the people of Sandhav must have been aware of the principles of astrology as well. The strong system of drainage of dirty water from the houses shows that the Sandhavas were cautious about public cleanliness. They knew how to avoid diseases and they also had medical knowledge. Therefore, children will be taught subjects like arithmetic, geometry, music, dance, painting, cleanliness and medicine etc.
Script
Various types of inscriptions are engraved on the utensils, coins and copper plates found from the Indus sites. These articles are in one or two lines. So modern linguists have not been able to read these articles. Nevertheless, some symbols used in the Indus script have been traced. Hunter is of the opinion that these articles are in hieroglyphs. Therefore, the Sandhava script should be considered a pictorial script. Each picture in the script represents a particular word or thing.
Scholars have so far made a list of 396 symbols. Scholars believe that this script was written from right to left in the first line and the second line was written from left to right. This type of handwriting is called 'Boustrophedon' (Boustrophedon). Based on the indicators identified, it can be said that the Indus script was more advanced and sophisticated than its contemporary Sumerian and Egyptian scripts.
Indus Arts
On the basis of material and building remains of daily use received from the Indus sites, it can be said that various arts had developed in the Indus culture and it was an advanced culture in terms of arts. The Sandhavas were not only successful in creating beautiful cities, but the method of building construction also gives information about the artistry of those people. He was an expert in making clay and bronze utensils and various types of idols out of clay, bronze and stones. A dancer obtained from Harappa appears ready to dance in the tribhangi posture. The two stone-statues found here are particularly noteworthy.
One of these is a red stone fragmentary human statue with a broken head but a safe torso. The second image is of a dancer made of black stone who has raised his left leg in a dance posture. Another fragmentary image is of a priest or yogi with eyes half-open. Many sculptures of animals and birds have been found in stone sculptures. Notable is a bull statue whose main body is made of stone but the horns and ears are made of some other material.
In relation to the sculpture of the Indus civilization, John Marshall wrote- 'Sindhav religion and art are wonderful and have a distinctive mark on them. In this period, we do not know any such thing in other countries, which is similar in style to the sculptures made here. .'
The painting of the Sandhavas is known from the paintings made on pottery. The Sandhavas used to draw pictures of deer, rabbit, crow, duck, squirrel, peacock, snake, fish etc., animals and birds and trees and plants like peepal, neem, dates etc. on the utensils by means of lines and dots. Human figures are also made on many utensils. On a pot there is a picture of a fisherman hanging a net on a bamboo and fish and turtles lying near his feet. The paintings on some utensils are very attractive and look real.
Economic life
The Indus Valley currently receives about 15 cm of annual rainfall. Therefore, this region is not very fertile, but looking at the excavation sites of the Indus civilization, it is estimated that this region was more fertile during that period. A contemporary historian of Alexander in the 4th century BC gives information that the Indus region was a fertile region.
Even before this, natural vegetation was more in the Indus region and due to this there was more rainfall. Due to this, there were dense forests throughout the region, from which firewood was obtained on a large scale. This wood was used for making bricks, making agricultural tools, making war tools and building buildings.
The culture in which large and splendid cities like Harappa and Mohenjodaro existed must have certainly been very prosperous. Since this civilization was not agrarian, the economic life of its inhabitants was mainly based on trade and industry. Trade and industry was in advanced condition. The economic life of the Indus people was based on industrial specialization and localization. The division of labor and organization can also be imagined in them. People doing one type of business used to live in the same area. If this civilization is called industrial civilization then it will not be an exaggeration. The following occupations and industries were prevalent in the Harappan Civilization-
(1.) Agriculture: The people of the Indus civilization used to sow wheat and barley in the floodplains in the month of November after the floods in the Indus river, and harvest wheat and barley in the month of April, before the coming floods. No shovel or hoe has been found from this area, but the pre-Harappan cisterns discovered at Kalibanga suggest that plows were used in the fields of Rajasthan during the Harappan period. The people of the Harappan culture probably used a wooden plow.
Whether this plow was pulled by men or bulls, it is not known. Stone sickles would have been used to harvest the crop. It is customary in Bilochistan and some parts of Afghanistan to build reservoirs by enclosing dams or drains, but it is estimated that there was no system of irrigation through canals in the Indus civilization. The villages of the Harappan culture, often located near the flood plains, produced enough food grains not only for their own needs but also for the artisans, traders and other citizens living in the cities.
The farmers of Indus civilization used to grow wheat, barley, rye, peas, etc. They used to grow two varieties of wheat and barley. Good quality barley has been found from Banawali. They also produced sesame and mustard seeds. The Harappan people of Lothal used rice even in 1800 BC. Rice remains have been found from Lothal. In Mohenjodaro, Harappa and possibly also Kalibanga, grain was stored in huge granary storages.
This grain was probably obtained from the farmers in the form of taxes and as remuneration it was distributed to the workers from the granaries. We can say this on the basis of the analogy of the cities of Mesopotamia where the remuneration was paid in the form of barley. The people of the Indus civilization were among the oldest people to grow cotton. That is why the Greeks named cotton as Sindon, which is derived from the word Sindh.
(2.) Victim: The people of the Indus-Valley were vegetarian and non-vegetarian. They used meat, fish and eggs etc. They used to hunt animals to get meat. Various types of things were made from animal hair, skin and bone.
(3.) Animal Husbandry: The people of Indus civilization used to cultivate a large number of animals along with farming. Pictures of animals have been found on the seals obtained from the excavation, from which it is known that cows, bulls, buffaloes, goats, sheep, dogs and pigs were their domestic animals. The Indus people especially liked the bull with big hump. From the very beginning, dogs were affectionate animals. Cats were also domesticated. The footprints of both the dog and the cat have been found. Oxen and donkeys were used for carrying loads. Surprisingly, no camel bones have been found in the excavation. Only three evidences have been found about the existence of the horse.
A dubious miniature sculpture has been found each from an upper surface of Mohenjodaro and from Lothal which can be called a horse sculpture. Horse remains, dating back to around 2000 BC, have been found at a place called Surkotda in Gujarat. It is estimated that camel and horse were not commonly used in the Harappan period. The people of Harappan culture were well acquainted with elephant and rhinoceros.
The people of the cities of the Sumerian civilization of Mesopotamia often produced the same grain as the Indus region and their domestic animals were also often the same as those of the Harappan culture, but the people of the Harappan culture settled in Gujarat used to grow rice and also domesticated elephants. Used to keep Both these things were not possible for the townspeople of Mesopotamia.
(4.) Crafts and Business: The Harappan culture dates back to the Bronze Age. Humans of Harappan civilization were skilled craftsmen and businessmen. He used a variety of stone tools and was well acquainted with bronze-making. Metallurgists used to prepare bronze by mixing tin with copper. Since both these metals were not accessible to the Harappans. Therefore the bronze-items were not manufactured on a large scale in Harappa.
Copper must have been imported from Khetri mines in Rajasthan and Bilochistan. Tin was probably obtained from Afghanistan with great difficulty. Some old tin mines have been found at Hazari Bagh in Bihar. Bronze tools and weapons found at sites of Harappan culture have a low proportion of tin. Nevertheless, many bronze objects have been found from this civilization, from which it is clear that the artisans of the Harappan society had an important place. They not only made idols and utensils, but also made various types of axes, saws, knives and spears etc.
Many crafts were developed in the Indus civilization. A piece of woven cotton cloth has been found from Mohenjodaro and cloth prints have been seen on many items. Spindles were used for spinning. Weavers used to weave cotton and woolen cloth. It is known from the huge brick buildings that masonry was an important skill. They also give information about the existence of a class of masons. The people of Harappan culture knew how to make boats. Making seals and figurines was an important craft occupation.
Goldsmiths used to make ornaments of silver, gold and precious stones. Silver and gold may have come from Afghanistan and precious stones from southern India. The artisans of the Harappan culture were also adept at making gems. The potter's wheel was widely used. Their pottery had its own specialty. The utensils were made smooth and shiny. Paintings were done on them. Various ivory items were also made.
(5) Business: Many such objects have been found in the excavations of Harappa and Mohenjodaro which were not found in the Indus Valley. Hence, it is inferred that these goods were imported from outside and these people had trade relations with foreign countries. Gold, silver, copper etc. were not available in the Indus region. These people used to get these metals from Afghanistan and Iran. The residents here probably used to get copper from Rajputana, shellfish, conch etc. from Kathiawar and deodar wood from the Himalaya Mountains.
Humans of the Harappan culture did not use metal coins. It is possible that business is run by barter. In exchange for manufactured goods and possibly grain, he obtained metals from neighboring regions and carried them by boats and bullock carts. Their boats used to run near the coast in the Arabian Sea. He knew how to use the wheel. The wheels of bullock carts were solid. The people of the Harappan culture used a vehicle like the modern aces.
These people had trade relations with Rajasthan, Afghanistan and Iran. The people of Harappan culture also had trade relations with the towns of Tigris and Euphrates region. Some seals of the Indus civilization have been found from the cities of Mesopotamia. It is estimated that some of the adornment tools used by the townspeople of Mesopotamia were adopted by the Harappans. Mesopotamian inscriptions from about BC 2350 onwards refer to trade relations with Meluh. This was probably the ancient name of the Indus region.
(6) Measurements and Weights: A large number of weights have been found in the excavation. Some weights are so large that they must be carried by rope and some are so small that they must be used by jewelers. Most weights are cubical. The foot was used to measure the length. मोहेनजोदड़ो की खुदाई में सीपी का बना हुआ एक फुट के बराबर माप का टुकड़ा मिला है। कांसे की बनी एक शलाका पर छोटे-छोटे निशान अंकित हैं, यह फुट प्रतीत होता है। तौलने के लिए तराजू का प्रयोग होता था।
निष्कर्ष
इस प्रकार हम देखते हैं कि सैन्धव सभ्यता और संस्कृति पर धर्म, कला एवं शिक्षा का विपुल प्रभाव था। जीवन का कोई अंग शायद ही इन पक्षों से अछूता था। सैन्धव सामाज में पुरोहित, शासक, व्यापारी, श्रमिक और कृषक रहते थे जो अलग-अलग कार्य करके सामाजिक विन्यास की रचना करते थे। सैन्धव सभ्यता के लोग सुसभ्य और सांस्कृतिक थे। उनके रहन-सहन का ढंग आधुनिक हिन्दू समाज की तरह काफी उन्नत था तथा समकालीन संस्कृतियों से काफी आगे था। भारतीय आर्यों ने सैंधव संस्कृति की अच्छी बातों को अपनाने में कोई संकोच नहीं किया। यही कारण है कि आज के हिन्दू-धर्म पर सैन्धव संस्कृति का व्यापक प्रभाव है। सैंधव वासियों का आर्थिक जीवन भी पर्याप्त विकसित था। ईसा से लगभग 1500 वर्ष पहले इस संस्कृति का विलोपन हो गया।