1488: Bartolomeu Dias, a Portuguese explorer, rounds the Cape of Good Hope, opening up a sea route to India and Asia.
1492: Christopher Columbus, an Italian explorer sailing under the Spanish flag, reaches the Americas, initiating European exploration and colonization of the New World.
1494: Treaty of Tordesillas: Spain and Portugal divide the world outside Europe between themselves, with Portugal claiming Brazil and eastern territories and Spain taking the western hemisphere.
1517: Martin Luther, a German theologian, posts his 95 Theses criticizing the Catholic Church's practices, sparking the Protestant Reformation, a religious movement that led to the split of Christianity into different denominations.
1519-1522: Ferdinand Magellan's circumnavigation of the globe, the first recorded voyage to complete a full circuit of the Earth.
1526: Battle of Mohács: The Ottoman Turks defeat the Hungarians, bringing most of Hungary under Ottoman rule.
1529: First Siege of Vienna by the Ottoman Turks, unsuccessfully attempting to capture the Austrian capital.
1533: Incan Empire in South America is conquered by Spanish conquistadors under Francisco Pizarro.
1543: Nicolaus Copernicus publishes his heliocentric theory, proposing that the Sun, not the Earth, is at the center of the universe, challenging the geocentric model that had been dominant since ancient times.
1558-1603: Reign of Elizabeth I in England, known as the Elizabethan Era, characterized by exploration, economic growth, and cultural flourishing, including the notable works of William Shakespeare.
1582: Pope Gregory XIII introduces the Gregorian calendar, replacing the Julian calendar, to improve accuracy in timekeeping.