1. Predynastic Period (Before 3100 BC):
- During the predynastic period, simple burial rituals were practiced, with bodies buried in the sand or shallow graves.
- Minimal efforts were made to preserve the deceased's body, except for occasional use of linen wrappings.
2. Early Dynastic Period (3100-2686 BC):
- Mummification techniques began to develop during this period, especially among the elite and wealthy.
- Bodies were wrapped in linen bandages and covered with resin or bitumen for better preservation.
- The earliest evidence of mummification dates to the reign of Djer, around 3000 BC.
3. Old Kingdom (2686-2181 BC):
- Mummification became more elaborate and standardized during the Old Kingdom.
- The removal of internal organs (except for the heart) became a common practice.
- The body cavities were filled with linen, resin, or sawdust to retain the shape.
- The use of natron, a natural salt, for drying and preserving the body became widespread.
4. Middle Kingdom (2055-1650 BC):
- During this period, mummification techniques continued to evolve, with increased attention to detail.
- More complex resins and embalming materials were developed.
- Elaborate rituals and prayers became an integral part of the mummification process.
5. New Kingdom (1550-1070 BC):
- Mummification reached its peak during the New Kingdom, with highly refined and advanced techniques.
- The use of linen wrappings became more extensive, and the number of layers could reach hundreds or even thousands.
- Mummies were often adorned with jewelry, amulets, and masks to enhance protection in the afterlife.
6. Late Period (664-332 BC):
- Mummification techniques started to decline during this period, as Egypt faced political instability and foreign influences.
- The use of natron and embalming materials became less consistent, leading to variations in the quality of mummification.
- Fewer resources were dedicated to elaborate rituals, and simpler methods were adopted.
7. Roman Period (30 BC-395 AD):
- Mummification practices continued under Roman rule, but they were often influenced by Roman customs and traditions.
- Mummification techniques declined even further, with some bodies simply wrapped in linen without embalming.
- Eventually, mummification in Egypt ceased altogether, as Christianity became the dominant religion and burial practices changed.
Overall, the evolution of mummification in ancient Egypt reflected advancements in techniques, materials, and rituals, with periods of refinement and decline based on cultural and historical factors.