Invention of steam engine
At the beginning of the eighteenth century, in England in AD 1712, such a steam engine was invented which could give continuous energy to various types of machines. The advent of these machines forced the workers to rethink their future and destiny. The economies of the countries started changing and the living conditions of the people started changing.
World in the last eighteen hundred years
We discussed in the previous chapter that after the rise of Protestantism against Catholicism, King Henry (VIII) of England completely broke ties with Rome and the Pope and Henry declared himself the President of the Christian Union. Had given. After that religion started running only as a government office in England and the control of religion from the minds of the people was reduced. This was the reason that the way for the invention of big machines was first opened in England and England itself gave birth to the Industrial Revolution in Europe.
The importance of this revolution can be understood from the fact that from the era of Julius Caesar to the beginning of the eighteenth century, horses and wagons remained the main means of movement of people all over the world. From the time of Julius Caesar to the advent of the eighteenth century, the religions of the people of Europe may have changed rapidly, but their way of thinking was the same in the eighteenth century as it was in the time of Julius Caesar.
The economic conditions of the people were also the same and the methods of governing the people were also the same. That is to say that the world had changed very little in the last eighteen hundred years, but the steam engine was not only going to change the physical appearance of the world but was also going to change the minds of the people of the world tremendously. The poor and middle class people of Europe started thinking about prosperity, production, commerce and science instead of religion. People started thinking about education and health. Now they wanted the kingdom of the subjects instead of the king.
Wave of Philosophers and Writers
Not only did machines play a role in this change in the thinking of the common people of Europe, but a wave of philosophers, thinkers and writers had arisen in eighteenth century Europe, which accelerated the pace of the advent of democratic ideas. .
Plume Voltaire
French historian and philosopher Plume Voltaire challenged the old political and religious beliefs in the eighteenth century and presented many new ideas to European society in opposition to them. He was counted among the wise men of his time. He strongly criticized Christianity and the Roman Catholic Church and supported freedom of religion, freedom of expression, and separation of the Church from governance.
His ideas deeply influenced European civilization. In a letter to King Frederick II of Russia on January 5, 1767, Voltaire wrote - 'Our religion (Christianity) is certainly the most ridiculous, the most absurd and the most bloodthirsty of the religions in the world to date. - It is pigmented. You can do eternal favor to humanity by ending the superstitions of this religion. I do not speak to the crowd that which is not worthy of preaching, and which is in every way amenable to slavery. I speak my word among honest people who wish to be understood.'
Voltaire rejected the biblical story of Adam and Eve and propounded the polygenic theory according to which each human species originated entirely separately. Thus from the time of Voltaire, people started daring to express comments and disagreements on the Bible. This also encouraged the ideas of freedom among the people.
Voltaire was taken prisoner and expelled from France. Voltaire moved to Ferney near Geneva. He was not provided with paper, pen and ink in the jail. So he wrote poems with bits of lead in between the lines of the books. Voltaire strongly hated injustice and bigotry. His message to the public was- 'Destroy these infamous things.' He lived till AD 1778.
Jean Jacques Rousseau
During the time of Voltaire, there was an educationist named Rousseau in Geneva. He wrote so many provocative articles on religion and politics that Rousseau became a rage throughout Europe. His ideas acted as the driving force for the French state revolution. The fire of revolution ignited in the minds of the people. His most famous book 'Social Contract' In which it is said that – 'Man is free from birth but he is chained everywhere.
Gibbon
In the eighteenth century there was an English writer named Gibbon who wrote 'Declination and Fall of Roman Empire' Wrote a book called This book exposed the bitter truth of Catholic history to the public.
Montesquieu
There was a thinker named Montesquieu in France who 'Espirit des Lois' Wrote a book called.
Adam Smith
Adam Smith's book 'Wealth of Nations' in England in AD 1776 was published. It was a book of economics but it threw light on the need for democratic governance and its social beauty. This book was written by Indian writer Kautilya of 4th century AD 'Arthashastra' Like 'Political Economics' The book is called.
In this, the natural rules governing the economy of the countries have been explained and it has been supported to promote such an economy within the country so that industries develop, more and more people get employment and the people are saved from hunger, poverty and scarcity. Get rid.
Although this book did not have any direct relation with democracy, however, due to the appearance of such ideas, people were forced to think that economic governance can also be given by taking the country out of the government which is bound by religious beliefs. In those days, the revolutions of America and France increased the thirst for democratic governance in Europe.
Thomas Paine
An influential English writer named Thomas Paine was born in the eighteenth century. He also helped Americans in America's War of Independence (E.1775-83), staying in America for some time. After the independence of America in AD 1783, he returned to England. At that time the revolution had started in France.
Thomas Paine in support of the French Revolution in AD 1791 'The Rights of Man' Wrote a book called, in which he made a scathing attack on the monarchy and strongly supported the democratic system of governance. The British government declared him a traitor, he fled to France. There he was imprisoned for opposing the murder of Louis (the sixteenth).
While in prison in Paris, in AD 1794, he wrote 'The Age of Reason' Wrote another book called (The Age of Logic). In this book he criticized the religious approach to governance. This book was published in many countries. This book was considered extremely dangerous for mankind in Europe.
Because most of the governments felt that religion is essential for governance. People can be kept in discipline only by showing fear of religion. If religion is not included in the governance then the subjects will become autocratic and rebellious. So the publishers of this book were jailed in many countries. English poet Shelley was alive in those days. He wrote a letter to the judge who sent the publisher of this book to prison in England, criticizing his decision.
August Count
In those days, there was a thinker named Auguste Kount (E.1798-1857) in France. He said that the era of old theology and fundamentalist religion is gone, but the world needs some religion.
That's why he 'Religion of Humanity' (human-religion) conceived and named 'Positivism' (positivism). The basic elements of this religion were kept love, order and progress. The basis of this religion 'Supernaturalism' Rather than 'Science' was. Hardly anyone adopted this religion, but the imagination of this religion had an effect on almost the whole of Europe. The fear of religious stereotypes kept going from the mind of the people and they now started seeing the social system in a larger perspective.
John Stuart Mill
It was during the time of Quint that there was an English thinker named John Stuart Mill, who was already flourishing in England utilitarianism (utilitarianism) Worked to popularize the theory of The ideological basis of this principle 'Maximum happiness to maximum people' was contained in. According to this theory, this was the only criterion of good and evil, the more people get pleasure from the work, the better the work.
After this theory became popular, in European countries, from religion to society and governments, it was tested on this criterion. In this way, the era of intellectual agitation and ideological brainstorming came in every sphere of life in the countries of Europe and in the beginning of the nineteenth century the whole of Europe was caught in the conflict between the ideas of monarchy and democracy. Monarchies fell in some countries and democracy began to appear. People were given voting rights.
Difference between human rights in Monarchy and Democracy
Although democracy is the name of a system giving equal rights to life to all human beings, yet it does not mean that it does not see the difference between the intellectual and physical abilities of human beings.
Autocracy and democracy both see and know the difference between the intellectual and physical abilities of man, but the basic difference between autocratic-government-system and democracy is that the autocratic system is based on less-intellectual and less-physical-capabilities. But it obstructs the freedom of man, whereas democracy provides equal basic rights of living to all people of greater and lesser physical and intellectual abilities.
In a democratic system, economic and educational differences exist between human beings, but their political and social status is not underestimated or overestimated. For example the power of suffrage. In a democratic government system, the poor and rich, educated and uneducated, physically strong and handicapped, men and women, all types of people have the right to vote.
Thus the average of the minds of all citizens, decides who will be their ruler! The European community of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries was far from the ideas of democracy and equality of human beings, although voices were being raised for it for the last several hundred years, but now the time has come when the voices for democracy should intensify.
Frustration with Democracy
By the nineteenth century, the demand for democracy began to intensify, and by the end of the nineteenth century, citizens in many European countries had the right to vote and choose parliament. People understood that now their life would change but after few years they were surprised to see that even in democracy they are as poor and helpless as they were before.
They had got the right to form the government but did not get any share in the power, the hunger was as it was. Therefore, by the end of the nineteenth century, enthusiasm for democracy in European countries began to decline, and the faltering monarchies ceased for a time. People's attention came to the point that No matter what the system of governance, it is not important, more important is how wealth is distributed in the society.
In countries where bad democracy had come, the bad leaders did not allow money to reach the poor society. In this way new ideas of socialism started coming. Millions of industrial workers in different countries wanted to get rid of the dangerously noisy machines, the dirty environment of factories and the heat of coal mines, a morsel to feed, and discipline in working hours, not democracy.
These were facilities that they could enjoy even if they lived within the monarchy. Provided that the king is good, the state servants are bound by the constitution and the mill owners fear the law. Yet all these things ultimately came to fulfillment by coming to democracy. Therefore, even though the idea of democracy could not get much respect among the general public, but the intellectual class of European countries considered democracy as the means to the end of all miseries.
Karl Marx
In the early nineteenth century AD, a writer named Karl Marx was born in the Jewish community of Germany in AD 1818. He was expelled from Germany because of his independent views and he first went to France and stayed there. In Paris he came into contact with another German named Engels.
Soon they both became close friends. Together they wrote some books which proved to be like a bright light on the mind of the people of Europe. Angered by what was written in these books, the French government also expelled Karl Marx from France, he went to England to live and set up a factory there.
ई.1848 को यूरोप में क्रांतियों एवं आंदोलनों का वर्ष कहा जाता है। इनके मूल में श्रमिक आंदोलनों की प्रधानता थी। कार्ल मार्क्स ने अनुभव किया कि यूरोप की मुख्य समस्या श्रमिकों की खराब जीवन-परिस्थितियाँ हैं। यहाँ तक कि फ्रांस की क्रांति के मूल में भी यही समस्या खाद-पानी का काम कर रही है। इसलिए मार्क्स ने मजदूरों के जीवन का गहराई से अध्ययन किया।
सौभाग्य से वह स्वयं एक बड़े कारखाने का मालिक था। इसलिए उसे श्रमिकों की समस्या को समझने में अधिक समय नहीं लगा। ई.1848 में उसने एंजेल्स के साथ मिलकर एक घोषणा पत्र जारी किया जिसे साम्यवादी घोषणापत्र कहा जाता है। इसमें उस समय के स्वतंत्रता, समानता एवं भाईचारे के लोकतांत्रिक नारों की आलोचना की गई तथा कहा गया कि इनकी आड़ में शासकों एवं मिल-मालिकों द्वारा जनता एवं मजदूरों को बेवकूफ बनाकर उनका शोषण किया जा रहा है।
इस घोषणा पत्र के अंत में उन्होंने मजदूरों से अपील की- ‘संसार के मजदूरों एक हो जाओ। तुम्हें खोना कुछ नहीं है सिवाय अपनी गुलामी की जंजीरों के, और पाने को तुम्हारे सामने सारा संसार पड़ा है।’ यह अपील ही इस घोषणापत्र का सार थी।
कार्ल मार्क्स ने यूरोप के समाचार पत्रों एवं पर्चों के माध्यम से साम्यवाद का प्रचार करना आरम्भ कर दिया। इसके साथ ही वह मजदूर संगठनों को एक करने के लिए दिन-रात प्रयास करने लगा। संभवतः उसे यूरोप में कोई बड़ा संकट आता दिखाई दे रहा था और वह चाहता था कि मजदूर न केवल उस संकट के लिए तैयार रहें अपितु उस संकट से लाभ भी उठाएं।
ई.1854 में उसने न्यूयार्क के एक समाचार पत्र में लिखा- ‘फिर भी हमें यह नहीं भूलना चाहिए कि यूरोप में छठी शक्ति भी है जो विशेष अवसरों पर पाँचों नामदार महान् शक्तियों पर अपनी सत्ता रखती है औ उन सबको थर्रा देती है। यह शक्ति क्रांति की है। बहुत दिन तक चुपचाप एकांतवास के बाद अब संकट और भूख इसे फिर लड़ाई के मैदान में बुला रहे हैं। केवल एक संकेत की आवश्यकता है। फिर से यूरोप की छठी और सबसे महान् शक्ति चमकता हुआ कवच पहने और हाथ में तलवार लिए हुए निकल पड़ेगी, जिस तरह ओलिम्पी के माथे से मिनर्वा प्रकट हुई थी। यह संकेत यूरोप के शीघ्र आने वाले युद्ध से मिल जाएगा।’
कार्ल मार्क्स ने लंदन में यूरोप के समाजवादियों, मार्क्सवादियों, लोकतंत्र के लिए संघर्ष कर रहे युवकों, क्रांतिकारियों आदि का एक विशाल सम्मेलन बुलाया जिसमें इंग्लैण्ड, इटली, जर्मनी तथा स्पेन सहित कई अन्य देशों के लोग आए।
ई.1867 में मार्क्स की पुस्तक ‘दास कैपिटल’ अर्थात् ‘पूँजी’ प्रकाशित हुई। यह पुस्तक जर्मन भाषा में लिखी गई थी। इसमें यूरोप में प्रचलित तत्कालीन आर्थिक मतों का विश्लेष करके उनकी कमियां बतलाई गई थीं और अपना साम्यवादी मत विस्तार के साथ समझाया गया था।
उसने इधर-उधर की आदर्शवादी बातों को छोड़ड़कर बिना किसी लाग-लपेट के और वैज्ञानिक ढंग से इतिहास और अर्थशास्त्र के विकास की चर्चा की और मनुष्य समाज में वर्गों के क्रम-विकास, इतिहास एवं आपसी अंतर्द्वन्द्वों के बारे में दूर तक असर निकालने वाले नतीजे निकाले। मार्क्स का यह नया समाजवाद, बिल्कुल साफ और तंर्क-संगत था जिसे मार्क्स का समाजवाद, मार्क्सवाद, साम्यवाद एवं कम्यूनिज्म कहा गया।
यह उस धुंधले आदर्शवादी समाजवाद से अलग था, जो अब तक चल रहा था। इस पुस्तक ने न केवल यूरोप के लोगों की अपितु संसार भर के लोगों की बुद्धि पर प्रभाव डाला और यूरोप में साम्यवाद की जड़ें गहराई तक जाने लगीं। इसी के चलते ई.1871 में पेरिस कम्यून की हिंसक घटना हुई। यह संसार में निश्चय-पूर्वक किया गया पहला साम्यवादी विद्रोह था। इस कम्यून के बाद यूरोपीय देशों की सरकारों के मन में मजदूर संगठनों के आंदोलनों से भय बैठ गया तथा उनका रुख मजदूर-संगठनों के विरुद्ध और अधिक कठोर हो गया।
पुरुषों एवं महिलाओं में भेदभाव
उन्नीसवीं सदी में यूरोप के देशों में जब राजनीतिक आंदोलनों के बाद लोकतंत्र ने जन्म लेना आरम्भ किया तो उसके साथ बहुत से किंतु-परन्तु लगे हुए थे। उदाहरण के लिए स्त्रियों को वोट देने का अधिकार नहीं दिया गया। यूरोपीय देशों की महिलाओं एवं राजनीतिक कार्यकर्ताओं द्वारा चलाए गए जबर्दस्त आंदोलनों के बाद वोटिंग अधिकार मिलने आरम्भ हुए।
न्यूजीलैण्ड ने ई.1893 में महिलाओं को वोटिंग अधिकार दिए। उन्नीसवीं सदी में महिलाओं को मताधिकार देने वाला यह एक मात्र देश था। ऑस्ट्रेलिया ने ई.1902 में, फिनलैण्ड ने ई.1906 में, नोर्वे ने ई.1913 में, डेनमार्क एवं आइसलैण्ड ने ई.1915 में अपने देश की महिलाओं को वोटिंग अधिकार प्रदान किए। बहुत से यूरोपीय देशों ने प्रथम विश्वयुद्ध की समाप्ति के बाद इस दिशा में कदम बढ़ाया।
इंग्लैण्ड में महिलाओं के मताधिकार के लिए ई.1867 से आंदोलन आरम्भ हुआ किंतु उनकी लड़ाई लम्बी चली। ई.1918 में 30 साल एवं उससे अधिक आयु की महिलाओं को मताधिकार प्राप्त हुआ। ई.1928 में इंग्लैण्ड में महिलाओं को पुरुषों के बराबर मताधिकार दिए गए।
अमरीकी महिलाओं को ई.1920 में वोट देने के अधिकार प्राप्त हुए। स्पेन में ई.1931 में, फ्रांस ने ई.1944 में तथा इटली ने ई.1946 में अपने देश की महिलाओं को मत देने के अधिकार दिए। स्विट्जरलैण्ड ने ई.1971 में महिलाओं को मताधिकार तो प्रदान किए किंतु वहाँ आज भी पुरुषों एवं महिलाओं के मताधिकारों में अंतर है तथा वहाँ की महिलाएं इस असमानता को दूर करने के लिए आज भी संघर्ष कर रही हैं।