- Shift from theological to humanistic concerns.
- Emphasis on classical Greek and Roman literature, art, and culture.
- Appreciation of human potential and the individual.
2. Scientific Revolution:
- Copernicus' heliocentric theory challenged geocentric view.
- Empirical observation, experimentation, and skepticism became norms.
3. Protestant Reformation:
- Rejection of papal authority and Catholic rituals.
- Martin Luther's 95 theses critiqued the sale of indulgences.
- Led to multiple Christian denominations and religious strife.
4. Exploration and Discovery:
- Overseas expeditions by Portuguese, Spanish, French, and English.
- Christopher Columbus reached the Americas (1492).
- Encounter with the New World challenged beliefs about geography and cultural superiority.
5. Rise of Printing and Mass Media:
- Gutenberg's invention of the printing press (c. 1440).
- Mass production of books led to wide dissemination of ideas, knowledge, and culture.
6. Mercantilism and Capitalism:
- Economic theory focused on wealth and power of the state through international trade.
- Accumulation of gold, silver, and resources.
- Transition from feudalism to capitalism began.
7. Rise of Nation States:
- Consolidation of power under central monarchies.
- Nation-building efforts promoted the sense of national identity.