The Brahmanical system used the Bhagavad Gita as a weapon to counter Buddhism.
– Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar
In the epic named Mahabharata, along with the original story of the Kaurava-Pandava war, texts like Adhyatma-Ramayana, Vishnu-Sahasranama, Anugita, Shrimad Bhagvat Geeta and Harivansh-Purana are also included. Based on the story of Mahabharata, the belief is prevalent in the Indian public mind that the Bhagavad Gita appeared from the mouth of Lord Krishna. The Lord preached the Gita to his disciple Arjuna in the field of Kurukshetra.
Eighteen chapters of Gita are described in Bhishma Parva of Mahabharata from 23 to 40th chapter. On the basis of literary and archaeological sources, it is believed in India that the war of Mahabharata took place in 3102 BC i.e. about 5120 years ago. Therefore, the incident of Lord Krishna preaching the Gita in Kurukshetra must have happened at that time.
Composition of Shrimad Bhagvat Geeta
Modern philologists, historians, philosophers and scholars of other fields do not consider the period of Mahabharata war as the period of creation of Mahabharata. According to him, the composition of the book took place long after the war. The original time of the composition of the book called Mahabharata is BC. It is believed to be in the fourth century. Its present form appeared in the fourth century AD. Therefore, the Gita should also be composed of the same period or some later period.
A very ancient manuscript of the Gita has been found from the island of Bali, which contains only eighty verses. Many scholars consider this to be the original copy of the Gita, which was later converted into 700 verses. The movement of Aryans and Dravidians between the Indian mainland and the island of Bali dates back to the Ramayana period and even earlier. Therefore the Gita found in Bali cannot be ignored.
There is mention of four Manus in the Shrimad Bhagvat Geeta received in modern times-
Vivasvanmanve prah manurikshavakave abravit. (4, 1)
Maharshayru sapta purve chatvaro manusthatha. (10, 6)
Later the number of Manus increased to 14. There is also a belief of 28 Manus in some Puranas. Therefore, it can be said that the writing of Gita took place before the Puranic period when only four Manus were recognized in the country. This period is the period of the Upanishads. The Puranas were in the womb of the future at that time. That is why the Gita is not a Purana, it is an Upanishad.
By paying attention to the material available in the Gita, it is known that the Brahmasutra, three Vedas and Vedanta are mentioned in the present Gita. The idea of Sankhya philosophy and yoga is also at its peak in the Gita. Non-violence, modesty, yagyakarma, superiority of Peepal, worship of Kuber Yaksha etc. have been mentioned in Gita. On the basis of such evidence, the time of the composition of the Gita can be estimated. Avatarism has been fully established in the Gita and the elevated action has also been described as yoga.
Modern philologists, historians and philosophers have been able to prove that the Bhagavad Gita was not originally a part of the Mahabharata, it was added to the Mahabharata as a projection during the Gupta period. This incident is mentioned by Fahien who came to India during the Gupta rulers in the fifth century AD. He writes- 'In those days the countrymen used to discuss about adding didactic verses in a big book written about quarrels between brothers.
Professor Damodar Dharmanand Kosambi, who did extensive research on the period of the Gita, has believed that the Gita was a separate text earlier, it was integrated into the Mahabharata around the Gupta period. This statement proves that the Gita not only existed during the Gupta period but also became a part of the Mahabharata. From this it can also be inferred that 80 verses of the Gita must have been converted into 700 verses even before they were added to the Mahabharata.
On the basis of modern researches, it is believed that the composition of the Bhagavad Gita dates back to BC. Happened in the fifth century. That is, a hundred years before the Maurya period. Later there were many manipulations in its original text. According to Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, the original composition of the Gita was done in 200 BC i.e. in Shunga period and its present form was prepared by a Vedanti in the second century AD.
Ancient form of Gita
Before the Gupta period, not a single text has been found in India in which the Bhagavad Gita is mentioned, but this does not mean that the Gita did not exist before that. It was a treatise of philosophy like any independent treatise. It was not recognized as the voice of God and the philosophy of the Gita of that period was also different from the Gita of today.
Hopkins is of the view that the now Krishna-dominated form of the Gita was formerly an old Vishnu-dominated poem and before that it was a non-sectarian composition. Possibly a late written Upanishad.
According to the Western scholar Garbe, the Bhagavad-gita was first a Sankhya-Yoga text in which later the worship of Krishna-Vasudeva was introduced, and in the third century BCE, Krishna was merged with the Vedic tradition, considering Krishna to be a form of Vishnu. The theory of Garbe is generally rejected in India.
Haltzmann considers the Gita to be a later Vishnu-dominated form of a pantheistic poem. Keith believes that originally the Gita, Shwetashvatar There was an Upanishad in the form of hymns, but later it was adapted to the worship of Krishna. Barnett is of the view that in the mind of the author of the Gita, different streams of tradition got mixed up.
Farkuhar writes that it is an older verse-Upanishad probably written after Svetasvatara and which some poet adapted into the present form of the Bhagavad-gita in some post-Christian period to support Krishnaism.
Rudolf Otto states that the original Gita was a magnificent section of an epic and contained no theoretical literature of any kind. Otto believes that the theoretical part is projected. In this matter he is in agreement with Jacobi, who is of the view that scholars have expanded the original small center-point and given it the present form.
The reason for these different views seems to be the fact that in the Gita, many streams of philosophical and religious thought have been twisted and mixed in one place in many ways. The Western philosopher Socrates died 399 years before Christ. Many of the principles of Gita are included in his thoughts. On this basis it can be said that during that period the philosophy of Gita had spread to other parts of the earth as well.
The old masters have seen the Bhagavad-gita as a philosophical discourse rather than as a divine speech to the devotee. Many Indians believe that many Upanishads existed in India long before the birth of Shri Krishna.
Lord Shri Krishna narrated the essence of the noble thoughts of those Upanishads in the form of Gita. Therefore it can be said that the ideas of the Gita did not appear at any one time. These are the result of hundreds of years of contemplation which took concrete form about five hundred years before Christ. The 80 verses of the Gita found from the island of Bali should be considered an early form of the Gita.
Actual author of Bhagavad Gita
The Indian public believes that the Bhagavad Gita was originally spoken by Lord Krishna to his friend Arjuna as a sermon before the battle of Kurukshetra. Lord Shri Krishna himself, before preaching the Gita, says to Arjuna- 'Before you I have narrated the sacred knowledge of Gita to Suryadev.
Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishna has written that as we do not know the names of the authors of almost all the books of the early literature of India, similarly we do not know the name of the author of the Gita. According to Sarvepalli Radhakrishna, the credit for the composition of the Gita is attributed to Lord Vedavyasa, the mythological compiler of the Mahabharata.
Many scholars of modern times believe that it would not have been possible for Shri Krishna to recite 700 verses to Arjuna in the battle field. He must have said some important things, which later some writer would have written in detail in the form of a huge work.
Krishna's aim was not to offer any extraterrestrial means of salvation, but to prepare Arjuna for the special service of fulfilling the all-powerful will of the Lord who decides the fate of wars.
The Gita is mentioned in the texts of the Gupta poet Kalidas of the fourth century AD, Raghuvansh and Kumarasambhava. The mention of the Gita is also found in the seventh century Harsha period poet Banabhatta's treatise Kadambari.
Chinese traveler Fahien came to India during the rule of the Guptas in the fifth century AD. He has written- 'In those days Indians used to discuss about adding didactic verses in a big book written about quarrels between brothers.
That is, Fahien says that the Gita was included in the Mahabharata some time before his arrival in India. Earlier 'Gita' was an independent scripture. An Indian must have told this to Fahien.
Hiuen Tsang, a Chinese traveler who visited India in the seventh century, has mentioned a story in his travelogue which is similar to the context of the Gita. The systematic and regular study of the Gita and the writing of commentaries begins with Adi Jagadguru Shankaracharya. Shankaracharya is considered the first commentator of this book.
Professor Damodar Dharmanand Kosambi has admitted that the Gita was incorporated into the Mahabharata around the Gupta period. Professor Meghnad Desai believes that before Adi Shankaracharya, there is very little mention of the Gita in Indian texts. The birth of Adi Shankaracharya is believed to be in AD 788. That is, only after the eighth century, the Gita started being mentioned in the literature of India.
Pro. Desai, citing various sources, states that there were at least three authors of the Gita, which happened at three different times. They also believe that the Gita was addressed to different audiences in different periods. Pro. According to Desai, the audience of the first writer was Pandit, Muni, Yogi, Tatvdarshi etc. The listeners of the second writer were chosen yeti, yogis etc., while the audience of the third writer was the general public.
Dr. Desai he takes a lot of help from Dr. Gajanan Kher in this discussion. Kher in Marathi 'Discovery of the original Geeta' Wrote a research book called Pro. Desai believes that the third author of the Gita was Badarayan who composed the Brahmasutra. They find many similarities between these two texts.
Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar has written extensively on Gita. They believe that the Brahmanical system used the Bhagavad Gita as a weapon to counter Buddhism.
Swami Vivekananda has written- 'The Gita is such a beautiful bouquet, in which beautiful flowers of philosophical hymns have been selected from the Upanishads. The author of Gita has done the work of blending Advaita, Yoga, Gyan, Bhakti etc. He chose the best from all the sects and threw it in the garland of the Gita.'
In this way it can be said that the Gita is not written by any one author, it was brought up to its present form after being modified again and again over a very long period of time. The idea of Gita certainly existed even before Lord Krishna. That is why it is said in Vaishnaviya Tantrasara-
Sarvopanishaddo Gavo, Dogdha Gopal Nandanah
Partho Vatsa Sudhirbhokta, Dugdham Geetamritam Mahat.
That is, Lord Krishna after milking all the cows of the Upanishads got the milk in the form of Gitamrit and Arjuna, the son of Pritha, consumed it reverently.
Similarity of Gita to Upanishads
There is a substantial similarity of words and ideas in the Gita and the Upanishads. The following verse of Kathopanishad is quoted almost verbatim from the twentieth verse of the second chapter of Gita-
Na jayate bhriyate va vipachinnayam kutschit babhuva kaschit.
Ajo nityah shashwatoyam purano na hanyate hanyamane sharire.
(Kathopanishad, 1.2.18)
Similarly, the following verse of Kathopanishad is identified with the nineteenth verse of the second chapter of Gita-
hanta chenmanyate hantu hatschenmanyate hamam.
Ubhou tau na vijanoto nayam hanti na hanyate.
(Kathopanishad, 1.2.19)
In the nineteenth verse of the second chapter of the Bhagvat Gita, the following verse of the Kathopanishad has been taken-
Shravanayapi bahubharyo na labhyah shravantopi bahuvo yana vidyah.
Wonderful speaker Kushalosya Labdhascharyo knower Kushalanushishtah.
(Kathopanishad, 1.2.7)
The following verse of Kathopanishad is quoted almost verbatim in the eleventh verse of the eighth chapter of the Bhagavad Gita-
Sarve Veda Yatpadamamananti Tapansi Sarvani Cha Yadvayanti.
if chhato brahmacharya charanti tatte padam samhanen bravimyomityetat.
(Kathopanishad, 1.2.15)
The idea of Devayana and Pitriyan routes first appeared in the Vedas. This idea was adopted by the Upanishads and later by the Gita. It is described in the twenty-fourth and twenty-fifth verses of the eighth chapter of the Gita-
Kurvanneh Karmani Jijivishechhat Samah.
av tyyi nanyathetoऽsti na karma lipyate nare..
(Ishavasyo Upanishad, 2)
The theme of the eleventh chapter of Gita 'Vishwaroop Darshan' मुण्डकोपनिषद् के निम्नलिखित श्लोक से प्रेरित है-
अग्निर्मूर्धा चक्षुषी चन्द्रसूर्यो दिशः श्रोत्रे, वाग् विवृताश्च वेदाः।
वायुः प्राणो, हृदय विश्वमस्य पदभ्यां ह्येष सर्वभूतान्तरात्मा।।
(मुण्डकोपनिषद्, 2.1.4.)
गीता के तृतीय अध्याय का बयालीसवां श्लोक कठोपनिषद के निम्नलिखित श्लोक के दर्शन से साम्य रखता है-
इन्द्रियेभ्यः पराहह्यार्था अर्थेभ्यश्चः परं मनः।
मनसस्तु परा बुद्धिर्बुद्धेरात्मा महान्परः।
(कठोपनिषद्, 1.3,10-11)
गीता ने श्वेताश्वतरोपनिषद् के ईश्वरवाद और भक्ति तथा उपसना के महत्व को भी ग्रहण किया है। कठोपनिषद् में जिस अश्वत्थ वृक्ष का वर्णन किया गया है ठीक वैसा ही गीता के पन्द्रहवें अध्याय में भी किया गया है परन्तु जहां कठोपनिषद् ने अश्वत्थ वृक्ष को ‘ब्रह्म’ माना है और ‘सद्’ मानने के कारण उसका नाश असम्भव माना है वहीं गीता ने उसको ‘संसार’ और ‘असद्’ माना है और इसलिए उसको उखाड़ फैंकने का उपदेश दिया है।
अश्वत्थ शब्द का प्रयोग संसार के लिए ही उचित बैठता है क्योंकि अश्वत्थ का शाब्दिक अर्थ है- जो कल तक नहीं ठहरता, अर्थात् नाशवान्। यहाँ यह ध्यान दिया जाना चाहिए कि वेदों एवं उपनिषदों से लिए गए संदर्भों की गीता में पुनरावृत्ति मात्र नहीं की गई है अपितु उन दार्शनिक सिद्धांतों का आगे विकास करने की दृष्टि से उन्हें ग्रहण किया गया है। उपनिषद् शास्त्रार्थ की तरह लिखे गए हैं जबकि गीता व्याख्यान की तरह है।
उपनिषदों में ज्ञान, कर्म और भक्ति तीनों मार्गों का विवरण होने पर भी ज्ञान पर अधिक जोर दिया गया है, गीता उपनिषदों से अधिक व्यावहारिक और समन्वयवादी है। गीता में ‘कर्म’ और ‘भक्ति’ पर विशेष बल दिया गया है तथा प्रवृत्ति और निवृत्ति का समन्वय किया गया है। डॉ. राधाकृष्णन् के अनुसार गीता में परस्पर विरोधी तत्वों का समवन्य करके उन्हें पूर्णता दी गई है। स्वयं वेदव्यासजी ने गीता के अंत में कहा है-
गीता सुगीता कर्त्तव्या किमन्यैः शास्त्रविस्तरै।
यां स्वयं पद्मानाभस्य मुखपद्माद्विनिसृता।।
अर्थात् गीता को भली प्रकार पढ़कर अर्थ और भाव सहित अन्तःकरण में धारण कर लेना मुख्य कर्त्तव्य है। जो कि स्वयं श्री पद्मनाभ भगवान् विष्णु के मुखारविन्द से निकली हुई है। फिर अन्य शास्त्रों से क्या प्रयोजन है! विलियम वॉन हम्बोल्ट ने लिखा है- ‘गीता किसी ज्ञात भाषा में उपस्थित गीतों में सम्भवतः सर्वाधिक सुन्दर और एकमात्र दार्शनिक गीत है।’
क्या गीता में बहुत से ग्रंथों के सिद्धांतों का मेल है ?
भारतीय चिंतन परम्परा अनेक दार्शनिक मतों का उदय हुआ जिनमें परस्पर विरोधी विचार प्रकट किए गए हैं। गीता के लेखक ने इन विरोधी एवं असंगत दिखाई पड़ने वाले तत्वों को मिलकार एक क्रमबद्ध सूत्र में पिरो दिया है जिन्हें स्वीकार करके, पाठक सच्चे आत्मिक जीवन की ओर बढ़ सकता है।
गीता पर भाष्य एवं टीकाएँ
संस्कृत साहित्य परम्परा में उन ग्रन्थों को ‘भाष्य’ कहते हैं जो दूसरे ग्रन्थों के अर्थ की वृहद व्याख्या या टीका प्रस्तुत करते हैं। भारतीय दार्शनिक परंपरा में किसी भी नये दर्शन को मान्यता पाने के लिए उपनिषद्, ब्रह्मसूत्र तथा गीता पर अपना दृष्टिकोण स्पष्ट करना पड़ता था अर्थात् उनका भाष्य उनकी टीकाएँ लिखनी होती थीं। इस कारण गीता पर अनेक दार्शनिकों एवं धर्माचार्यों ने टीकाएँ लिखीं। संप्रदायों के अनुसार उन टीकाओं की संक्षिप्त सूची इस प्रकार है-
(1.) अद्वैत सम्पद्राय के आचार्यों द्वारा गीता की टीकाएँ: शंकराचार्य कृत शांकराभाष्य, श्रीधर कृत सुबोधिनी, मधुसूदन सरस्वती कृत गूढ़ार्थ दीपिका।
(2.) विशिष्टाद्वैत सम्पद्राय के आचार्यों द्वारा गीता की टीकाएँ : यामुनाचार्य कृत गीता अर्थसंग्रह, जिस पर वेदांत देशिक कृत गीतार्थ-संग्रह रक्षा टीका है। रामानुजाचार्य कृत गीताभाष्य, जिस पर वेदांत देशिक कृत तात्पर्य चंद्रिका टीका है।
(3.) द्वैत सम्पद्राय के आचार्यों द्वारा गीता की टीकाएँ : मध्वाचार्य कृत गीताभाष्य, जिस पर जयतीर्थकृत प्रमेय दीपिका टीका है, मध्वाचार्य कृत गीता-तात्पर्य निर्णय।
(4.) शुद्धाद्वैत सम्पद्राय के आचार्यों द्वारा गीता की टीकाएँ : वल्लभाचार्य कृत तत्व दीपिका, जिस पर पुरुषोत्तम कृत अमृत तरंगिणी टीका है।
(5.) कश्मीरी लेखकों द्वारा गीता की टीकाएँ: अभिनव गुप्त कृत गीतार्थ संग्रह। आनंदवर्धन कृत ज्ञानकर्मसमुच्चय।
आधुनिक काल के लेखकों द्वारा गीता की टीकाएं –
भावार्थ दीपिका :संत ज्ञानदेव या ज्ञानेश्वरकृत
ज्ञानेश्वरी :संत ज्ञानेश्वर (मराठी अनुवाद)
गीतारहस्य :बालगंगाधर तिलक
Essays on Gita :अरविन्द घोष
ईश्वरार्जुन संवाद :परमहंस योगानन्द
गीता तत्व विवेचनी टीका :जयदयाल गोयन्दका
भगवदगीता का सार :स्वामी क्रियानन्द
गीता साधक संजीवनी :स्वामी रामसुखदास
अनासक्ति योग :मोहनदास गांधी
गीता-प्रवचन :विनोबा भावे
गीता में धर्म-दर्शन
वर्तमान समय में गीता में 18 अध्याय और 700 श्लोक हैं। नौवीं शताब्दी ईस्वी में शंकराचार्य द्वारा रचित गीताभाष्य में भी श्लोकों की संख्या 700 बताई गई है– ‘तं धर्मं भगवता यथोपदिष्ट वेदव्यासः सर्वज्ञोभगवान् गीताख्यैः सप्तभिः श्लोकशतैः पनिबंध।’
20वीं सदी के लगभग जावा की भाषा में भीष्मपर्व का एक अनुवाद हुआ जिसमें गीता के अनेक मूल श्लोक सुरक्षित हैं। श्रीपाद कृष्ण बेल्वेलकर के अनुसार जावा के इस प्राचीन संस्करण में गीता के केवल साढ़े इक्यासी श्लोक मूल संस्कृत के हैं। उनसे भी वर्तमान पाठ का समर्थन होता है। गीता, उपनिषद् और ब्रह्मसूत्र की गणना ‘प्रस्थानत्रयी’ में की जाती है।
गीता के माहात्म्य में उपनिषदों को गौ और गीता को उसका दुग्ध कहा गया है। इसका तात्पर्य यह है कि उपनिषदों की जो अध्यात्म विद्या थी, उसको गीता सर्वांश में स्वीकार करती है। उपनिषदों की अनेक विद्याएँ गीता में हैं। जैसे, संसार के स्वरूप के सम्बन्ध में अश्वत्थ विद्या , अनादि अजन्मा ब्रह्म के विषय में अव्ययपुरुष विद्या , परा प्रकृति या जीव के विषय में अक्षरपुरुष विद्या और अपरा प्रकृति या भौतिक जगत के विषय में क्षरपुरुष विद्या। इस प्रकार वेदों का ब्रह्मवाद और उपनिषदों का अध्यात्म, दोनों ही गीता में संयोजित हैं, उसे ही ब्रह्मविद्या कहा गया है।
गीता में ब्रह्मविद्या का आशय निवृत्तिपरक ज्ञानमार्ग से है। इसे सांख्य-मत कहा जाता है जिसके साथ निवृत्ति-मार्गी जीवन-पद्धति जुड़ी हुई है किंतु गीता उपनिषदों के युग से आगे बढ़कर उस काल की देन है जब भारत में एक नया दर्शन जन्म ले रहा था और जो गृहस्थों के प्रवृत्ति-धर्म को निवृत्ति-मार्ग के समान फलदायी मानता था।
गीता में ‘योगशास्त्रे’ शब्द का प्रयोग हुआ है जिसका अभिप्राय ‘कर्मयोग’ is from. गीता में योग की दो परिभाषाएँ बताई गई हैं। एक निवृत्ति मार्ग की सृष्टि से जिसमें ‘समत्वं योग उच्यते’ कहा गया है अर्थात् गुणों के वैषम्य में साम्यभाव रखना ही योग है। यह सांख्य सम्मत परिभाषा है।
गीता में योग की दूसरी परिभाषा ‘योगः कर्मसु कौशलम’ के रूप में दी गई है जिसका अर्थ है कि ऐसे उपाय से कर्म करना जिससे वह कर्म, बंधन का कारण न बने और कर्म करनेवाला व्यक्ति स्वयं को उसी असंग या निर्लेप स्थिति में रखे जो ज्ञानमार्गियों को मिलती है। इसी युक्ति का नाम बुद्धियोग है और यही गीता के योग का सार है।
गीता के दूसरे अध्याय में प्रयुक्त ‘तस्य प्रज्ञाप्रतिष्ठिता’ का अभिप्राय ‘निर्लेप कर्म की क्षमतावली बुद्धि’ is from. यह संन्यास द्वारा वैराग्य प्राप्त करने की स्थिति नहीं थी अपितु कर्म करते हुए प्रतिक्षण मन को वैराग्ययुक्त स्थिति में स्थिर करने की युक्ति थी। यही गीता का कर्मयोग है। गीता में अनेक स्थलों में ‘सांख्य के निवृत्ति मार्ग’ और ‘कर्म के प्रवृत्तिमार्ग’ की व्याख्या की गई है और दोनों को श्रेयस्कर बताया गया है।