I know neither the right nor the left, I know neither the east nor the west. My intellect is not mature, I am desperate and restless. If you guide me, I will come to know about this famous Abhay Jyoti.
-Nasadiya Sukta, Rigveda.
The settlements of ancient Aryans have been found from Europe to Central Asia and India up to the Sapta-Indus region and the banks of Saraswati, but the history of Aryan civilization is certainly older than these settlements. The earliest literature of the Aryans is BC. 2500, but it is possible that the Aryans were living in India even before this period.
There are two types of sources available to know about the ancient Aryan culture-
(1.) Archaeological Materials: Pottery, coins, weapons, building remains etc.
(2.) Vedic Literature: Vedas, Brahmanical texts, Aranyakas, Upanishads, Sutras.
Vedic period
The Vedic period refers to the period in which the Aryans composed the Vedic texts. These texts are related to each other and have been developed gradually. First the Rigveda and then other Vedas were composed. After the composition of the Vedas, Brahmanical texts were composed to explain them. When the number and nature of the Vedas and Brahman texts became so vast that it was difficult to memorize them, the sutras were composed to give them a concise form.
It took thousands of years to compose all this Vedic literature. Scholars believe that Vedic literature was composed between 4000 BC to 600 BC. That is why this period is called the Vedic period and the Aryan civilization of this period is called the Vedic civilization.
Time Division of Vedic Civilization
The Vedic period is divided into two parts-
(1) Rigvedic-civilization (BC4,000 to BC1000): Rigveda is the oldest of the four Vedas. Therefore the civilization of Rigveda is the oldest. There is a difference of opinion among scholars regarding the composition of Rigveda. Some scholars like PV Kane etc. consider this book to have been composed between 4000 BC to 2500 BC, while Max Müller etc. scholars consider it to be composed between BC 2500 to 1000 BC. . In the Rigveda period, the Aryans lived in the Sapta-Sindhu region (the region of the Indus, Saraswati, Parushni, Vitasta, Shatudri, Askini, Vipasha rivers). The civilization of this period is called Rigvedic civilization.
(2) Post-Vedic Civilization (BC1000 to BC600): The Yajurveda, Samaveda, Atharvaveda, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads were composed in the post-Vedic period. Of these, the Atharvaveda was composed around 1000 BC, while the Brahmanas and Aranyakas continued to be composed till 600 BC. The Upanishads were composed in BC. from BC happened between During this period the Aryan civilization had reached the land between the Saraswati, Drishadvati and Ganga rivers and the Aryans had established small kingdoms. The name of this region was Kurukshetra. The civilization of the Aryans of the post-Vedic period developed here. Yajurveda, Samveda and Atharvaveda were composed in this region. In the post-Vedic period, the Rigvedic civilization gradually developed and many changes took place in it.
Formula Period
The composition of the post-Vedic texts ends with the beginning of the composition of the Sutras. The sutras were composed from 600 BC to 200 BC. This period is called Sutrakal.
Vedic Literature
Vedic texts can be divided into three parts- (1) Vedas or Samhitas (Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samveda, Atharvaveda), (2) Brahman-Granths (Brahmins, Aranyakas and Upanishads), (3.) Sutras ( Sraut Sutras, Grihya Sutras and Dharma Sutras). The first two i.e. Samhita and Brahmana-Granths are also called Shruti. Shruti means that which is heard. The ancient Aryans believed that the Samhitas and the Brahmanas were not the creation of any man. The teachings given in them were heard by the sages and sages from the mouth of Brahma. That is why these texts are called Shruti.
The teachings given in these texts are Brahma-Vakyas, so they are absolutely true. They cannot be doubted. The exhortations given in the Samhitas and the brahmanical texts are very long. Therefore, the Aryan scholars wrote down the teachings in short sentences for the common man. 'Sutra' it is said. The meaning of the sutra is- 'Summing up.' In these texts, big things have been written in a nutshell, so they were called sutras.
(1.) Veda or Samhita
Veda is derived from Sanskrit word 'Vid' which means to know or to acquire knowledge. Vedas are those texts which were considered as the only means of attainment of knowledge. Veda-Vakyas being Brahma-Vakyas were eternally true and living life according to them would improve both the here and the hereafter. That is, happiness was attained in this world and salvation was attained after death. Vedas have great importance in the life of Indians. Vedas are the eternal and inexhaustible treasure of Indian religion and culture.
The Vedas are called the mother of Sanskrit literature. The Indus-Valley civilization was the oldest civilization in India and the Arya-civilization was built by the Vedic Aryans. We can call Vedas the life of Indian society without which it could not survive. Vedas are the basis of all the literature written after the Vedas. There are four Vedas – Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda. Only Rigveda, Yajurveda and Samaveda were composed by the ancient Aryans. These are collectively 'Veda-Triye' OR 'Trilogy' where did it go. Atharvaveda is much later which was written last.
In the beginning, the reading and reading of the Vedas was oral. The sages and sages of different ashrams used to recite them in their own way. Due to this various text-traditions started. Through the guru-disciple tradition and father-son tradition, these mantras were fixed in the sage clans and through Shruti the disciple knew from the guru or the son, from the father. For this reason he was also called Shruti.
The various hymns, which used to be passed on by the Shruti in the various Rishikulas, gradually began to be compiled. The main credit of this important work goes to Maharishi Ved Vyas, the noble of Mahabharata. He collected the Vedic hymns and codified the Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharveda. When the Vedas were codified in writing, they came to be known as 'Samhita'. Samhita means collection. Since these texts contain a collection of mantras, they were called Samhitas.
(1.) Rigveda: It is made up of two words - Rik and Veda. Rik means praise-mantra. Praise-mantra is also called Richa. The Veda in which the hymns of praise have been collected is called Rigveda. Sun, wind, fire etc. are the principal deities of Rigveda. That is why these hymns were written in the praise of these gods. The collection of hymns was not done by any one sage. Rather they were compiled by different sages at different times. Rigveda is divided into ten mandalas or parts.
Each mandala is divided into several anuvakas. Anuvak means what is said afterward. Since his place is after the Mandal, he is called Anuvak. Each anuvak is divided into several hymns. Sukta means good utterance i.e. that which is well said. There are 10 mandalas in Rigveda in which there are 1028 hymns. Each hymn is divided into several hymns i.e. praise-mantras, the total number of hymns is 10,580.
The name of a sage and a deity is also found with each hymn. In fact, the sage was the author of that hymn. The names of Gritsamad, Vishwamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bharaddhaja and Vashistha are notable among such sages. There are also some women's names among the sages who wrote the mantra, in which the names of Lopamudra, Ghosha, Shachi, Poulomi and Kakshavruti are notable. The creators of each hymn of the first, ninth and tenth mandalas are different sages. Probably these sages are Puranas of the original authors of Vedic hymns.
The hymns of the ninth mandala are related to Soma only. In some places, the word ashtak is used in place of mandala. Most of the hymns of the Rigveda are in the form of praise and prayer, and sacrifices and rituals are predominant. Aryan sages, by sacrificing fragrant items in the yajnas, prayed to the gods for long life, sons and grandsons and wealth and destruction of enemies.
Rigveda is the oldest text of the Aryans. It was probably composed around 4,000 BC. to 2,500 BC occurred during the period. Although Rigveda is a collection of hymns and hymns which have mainly religious and spiritual importance, yet it has great importance from the historical point of view as it is the only means to know the history of this period. Some of the mantras tell about the mutual wars between the Aryans and the non-Aryans. It is the oldest book not only in India but in the world. Due to its antiquity, the head of India is the highest among all the cultures of the world. It was composed in the Sapta-Sindhu region.
Max Müller has written- 'Veda fills that void in the history of the world which no literary text of any language can fill. It takes us to a time of the past that is not mentioned anywhere else and introduces us to the real words of the people of that generation, which we could have only faintly assessed in the absence of it.'
(2.) Yajurveda: It is made up of two words- Yajuh and Veda. The word Yaj means to perform Yajna. Yaju:used to refer to those mantras by which Yajan or worship was performed, that is, sacrifices were performed. That is why Yajurveda is called that Veda in which there is the law of sacrifices. Basically this is a ritualistic book. In this book, the practice of sacrifice, its importance and methods are described. In the Yajurveda, along with the hymns, there are also rituals, which are prescribed to be recited. These rituals are reflective of the social and political conditions of their time in which they originated.
This book is divided into two parts. The first part is called Shukla Yajurveda which is written independently and the second part is called Krishna Yajurveda which is a compilation of earlier literature. Shukla Yajurveda to 'Vajasneyi Samhita' also says. Due to the difference of text it has two branches - 'Kravan' and 'Meanable'.
Four branches of Krishna Yajurveda are mentioned – Kathak Samhita, Kapishthaka Samhita, Maitreyi Samhita and Taittiriya Samhita. Of all these, the Vajasaneyi Samhita of Shukla Yajurveda is the most important. There are forty chapters in it, each of which is related to some or the other sacrificial ritual. Final Chapter 'Ishopanishad' Which is not related to yagya rituals but to spiritual thinking.
Yajurveda was composed in Kurukshetra. This Veda also has historical utility. It gives a glimpse of the social and religious life of the Aryans. It is known from this Veda that now the Aryans had migrated from Sapta-Sindhu to Kurukshetra and now nature-worship was neglected and the Varna system had emerged. Thus the Yajurveda also reveals the changes in the life of the Aryans after the Rigvedic period.
(3.) Samved: Sama has two meanings - peace and song. Here Sama means song. Therefore Samaveda means that Veda whose verses are lyrical and which are musical. Only 66 mantras are new in Samaveda. The rest of the mantras are taken from the Rigveda. The mantras of Samaveda, being lyrical, give peace to the mind. These mantras are recited on the occasions of sacrifice. Due to the difference of text, it has three branches - Kauthum branch, Ranayinaya branch and Jaiminya branch.
(4.) Atharvaveda: 'Ath' Means Mars or Kalyan, Atharva Means fire and Atharvan It means priest. That is why Atharvaveda is called that Veda in which the priests, by protecting them from ghosts and demons with the help of mantras and fire, do good or welfare of human beings. It was composed much later than the first three Vedas. There are two branches of Atharvaveda - Saunaka and Piplad. It consists of forty chapters and deals mainly with the domestic life of the Aryans.
Atharvaveda mentions many demons and demons from whom mantras have been given to avoid. Mantra-tantras have also been given for the prevention of calamities and diseases. These mantras protect human beings with the help of witchcraft. Some of the mantras in this text are from Rigveda and some are from Samaveda. It throws light on the family, social and political life of the Aryans and also gives information about the beliefs and practices of the non-Aryan people.
(2.) Brahman texts
Brahmin, 'Brahm' Derived from the word, which means Veda. That is why Brahmins call those texts in which Vedic mantras have been explained. The nature of Yagyas and their methods have been described in it. Since the work of performing and conducting the Yagya was done by the priests who were Brahmins, these texts were named Brahmins because they were related only to Brahmins. Composition of Brahmin texts 'Brahmarshi Desh' happened in.
There are two parts of Brahman texts- (1) Vidhi and (2) Arthanaad i.e. interpretation of the meaning of rules through narratives, Puranas and history.
प्रत्येक वेद के अपने-अपने ब्राह्मण हैं। ऋग्वेद के कौषितकी या सांख्यायान और ऐतरेय ब्राह्मण Huh. कृष्ण यजुर्वेद का तैतिरीय ब्राह्मण तथा शुक्ल यजुर्वेद का शतपथ ब्राह्मण है। शतपथ ब्राह्मण एक विशाल ग्रन्थ है जिसमें एक सौ अध्याय हैं। इसके रचयिता याज्ञवल्क्य ऋषि हैं। इस ग्रंथ में याज्ञिक अनुष्ठानों का विस्तार से वर्णन है तथा विविध अनुष्ठानों के प्रयोजनों पर पर्याप्त प्रकाश डाला गया है।
सामवेद के तीन ब्राह्मण हैं- ताण्ड्य ब्राह्मण, षडविश ब्राह्मण और जैमिनीय ब्राह्मण। सामवेद के छान्दोग्य के मंत्र ब्राह्मण एवं सामविधान ब्राह्मण हैं। अर्थवेद का गोपथ ब्राह्मण है।
यद्यपि ब्राह्मण-ग्रन्थों की रचना याज्ञिकों के पथ-प्रदर्शन के लिए की गई थी तथापि इनसे आर्यों के सामाजिक, धार्मिक तथा राजनीतिक जीवन पर भी पर्याप्त प्रकाश पड़ता है। ब्राह्मण-ग्रन्थों की रचना प्रधानतः गद्य में की गई है परन्तु कहीं-कहीं पद्य भी विरल रूप से मिलते हैं। इनकी भाषा परिष्कृत तथा उच्च कोटि की है।
आरण्यक तथा उपनिषद् भी ब्राह्मण-ग्रन्थों के अन्तर्गत आते हैं। ब्राह्मणों के परिशिष्ट ‘आरण्यक’ कहलाते हैं और उनके अन्तिम भाग ‘उपनिषद’ are.
आरण्यक: आरण्यक उन ग्रन्थों को कहते हैं जिनकी-रचना ‘अरण्यों’ अर्थात् ‘जंगलों’ के शान्त वातावरण में हुई और जिनका अध्ययन-चिन्तन भी जंगलों में एकान्तवास में किया जाना चाहिए। ये ग्रन्थ वानप्रस्थाश्रमियों के लिए होते थे। वानप्रस्थाश्रम में प्रवेश करने पर लोग जंगलों में चले जाते थे और वहीं पर चिन्तन तथा मनन किया करते थे। आत्मा क्या है, सृष्टि का निर्माण कैसे हुआ, सृष्टि किन तत्त्वों से बनी है, सृष्टि का नियन्त्रक कौन है, परमसत्ता का स्वरूप कैसा है, इस प्रकार के गूढ़ विषयों का चिन्तन आरण्यक ग्रन्थों में किया गया है। अध्यात्म-चिन्तन आरण्यक ग्रन्थों की सबसे बड़ी विशेषता है।
उपनिषद्: यह तीन शब्दों से मिलकर बना है- उप+नि+षद्। उप का अर्थ होता है समीप, नि का अर्थ होता है नीचे और षद् का अर्थ होता है बैठना। इसलिए उपनिषद् उन ग्रन्थों को कहते हैं जिनका अध्ययन गुरु के समीप नीचे बैठकर श्रद्धापूर्वक किया जाना चाहिए। उपनिषद ब्राह्मण ग्रन्थ के अन्तिम भाग में आते हैं। ये ज्ञान प्रधान ग्रन्थ हैं। इनमें उच्च कोटि का दार्शनिक विवेचन मिलता है। उपनिषदों की तुलना में संसार में कोई अन्य श्रेष्ठ दार्शनिक ग्रन्थ नहीं है।
उपनिषदों से हमें ज्ञात होता है कि इस युग में वर्ण तथा वर्णाश्रम व्यवस्था दृढ़ रूप से स्थापित हो गए थे तथा मानव की सभ्यता एवं संस्कृति में बहुत बड़ा परिवर्तन हो गया था।
उपलब्ध उपनिषद ग्रन्थों की संख्या लगभग दो सौ है किन्तु उनमें से केवल बारह का स्थान महत्त्वपूर्ण है। उनके नाम हैं- ईश, केन, कठ, प्रश्न, मुण्डक, माण्डूक्य, तैतिरीय, ऐतरेय, छान्दोग्य, बृहदारण्यक, कौषितकी और श्वेताश्वतर। अधिकांश उपनिषद ई.पू.1000 से ई.पू.300 के बीच की अवधि में रचे गए। विभिन्न काल-खण्डों में रचे जाने के कारण उपनिषदों की भाषा, कथन-शैली तथा वैचारिक पृष्ठभूमि में अंतर है।
उपनिषदों का प्रमुख विषय ‘दर्शन’ Is. वेदों में ज्ञान-मार्ग सम्बन्धी जो बातें पाई जाती है, उन्हीं का विकास आगे चलकर उपनिषदों के रूप में हुआ। वस्तुतः उपनिषद्, वेद के उन स्थलों की व्याख्या है जिनमें यज्ञों से अलग हटकर ऋषियों ने जीवन के गहन तत्त्वों पर विचार किया गया है। दूसरे शब्दों में, उपनिषद आर्य मस्तिष्क के धर्म से दर्शन की ओर झुकाव का परिणाम हैं। इनकी प्रवृत्ति उपासना से ध्यान की ओर, यज्ञ से चिन्तन की ओर तथा बाह्य प्रकृति की आराधना से अन्तरात्मा की खोज की ओर है।
ये ब्रह्मज्ञान के श्रेष्ठतम ग्रन्थ हैं। आत्मा, ब्रह्म, मोक्ष तथा सृष्टि आदि के सम्बन्ध में उपनिषदों में व्यक्त विचार ही शंकर के दर्शन के मूल में है। उपनिषद ही वेदान्त के अन्य सम्प्रदायों- अद्वैत, द्वैत, विशिष्टाद्वैत आदि को मूल सामग्री उपलब्ध करवाते हैं। गीता में भी उपनिषदों का सार है। बौद्ध और जैन मतों के अधिकांश सिद्धान्त भी इन्हीं पर आधारित हैं। वर्तमान समय में हिन्दू-धर्म के प्रमुख सिद्धान्त भी उपनिषदों से ही लिए गए हैं।
जर्मन विद्वान शोपेन हावर ने लिखा है- ‘सम्पूर्ण विश्व में उपनिषदों के समान जीवन को उँचा उठाने वाला कोई अन्य ग्रन्थ नहीं है। इनसे मुझे जीवन में शान्ति मिली है। इन्हीं से मृत्यु के समय भी शान्ति मिलेगी।’
(3.) सूत्र
सूत्र का शाब्दिक अर्थ होता है धागा। इसलिए सूत्र उन ग्रन्थों को कहते हैं जो इस प्रकार लिखे जाते थे मानो कोई चीज धागे में पिरो दी गई हो। और उनमें एक क्रम स्थापित हो गया हो। जब वैदिक साहित्य का रूप अत्यन्त विशाल हो गया तो उसे कंठस्थ करना बहुत कठिन हो गया। इसलिए एक ऐसी रचना-शैली का विकास किया गया जिसमें वाक्य तो छोटे-छोटे हों परन्तु उनमें बड़े-बड़े भावों तथा विचारों का समावेश हो। इन्हीं रचनाओं को सूत्र कहा गया। महर्षि पाणिनि ने सूत्रों की तीन विशेषताएँ बताई हैं-
(1.) वे कम अक्षरों में लिखे जाते हैं,
(2.) वे असंदिग्ध होते हैं और
(3.) वे सारगर्भित होते हैं।
सूत्र साहित्य के तीन भाग हैं- श्रौत सूत्र, गृह्य सूत्र और धर्म सूत्र। श्रौत सूत्रों में वैदिकयुगीन यज्ञों और उनके वर्गीकरण का समावेश है, गृह्य सूत्रों में गार्हस्थिक संस्कार, अनुष्ठान, आचार-विचार और कर्मकाण्ड का वर्णन है तथा धर्म सूत्रों में धार्मिक नियम, राजा-प्रजा के कर्त्तव्य और अधिकार, सामाजिक वर्ण प्रधान भेद, आश्रम आदि विभिन्न व्यवस्थाओं का उल्लेख है।
सूत्रों में कल्प-सूत्र सर्वाधिक महत्त्व का है। सूत्रों की रचना करने वालों में महर्षि पाणिनि प्रमुख हैं। इन ग्रन्थों की रचना 700 ई.पू. से 200 ई.पू. के बीच हुई। सूत्रों में आर्यों के धार्मिक, सामाजिक तथा राजनीतिक जीवन का भी पर्याप्त परिचय मिलता है।