Early Life and Civil Wars
During his father's reign, Charles gained military experience in the First and Second English Civil Wars, commanding Royalist forces in the West Country and Wales. After the defeat of the Royalists in 1646, he went into exile in Europe. During his exile, Charles lived in France, the Netherlands, and the Channel Islands. He was proclaimed King of Scotland and crowned at Scone in 1651, but was defeated by Oliver Cromwell's forces at the Battle of Worcester in 1651 and forced into exile again.
The Restoration
In 1660, the English Parliament invited Charles to return as king, leading to the Restoration of the monarchy. Charles' reign marked the end of the Interregnum, the period of republican government under Cromwell and his son, Richard Cromwell. He was crowned at Westminster Abbey on 23 April 1661.
Domestic Policies
Charles II's reign was marked by several significant domestic policies, including the Act of Uniformity (1662), which required all ministers of the Church of England to adhere to the Book of Common Prayer, the Clarendon Code (1661-1665), which imposed restrictions on Roman Catholics and Protestant Nonconformists, and the Test Acts (1673 and 1678), which required all public officials to take Communion according to the rites of the Church of England and deny transubstantiation. These policies led to religious tensions and conflicts throughout his reign.
Foreign Policy
In foreign policy, Charles II pursued a pro-French stance and promoted an alliance with France against the Dutch Republic. This policy resulted in the Anglo-Dutch Wars of the 1660s and early 1670s. He also provided support to his nephew, James, Duke of York, who became Catholic in 1668. This led to the eventual exclusion crisis, a political conflict over whether James could succeed to the throne due to his religious beliefs.
Personal Life and Legacy
Charles II had a reputation as a pleasure-loving and indulgent monarch, known for his many mistresses and illegitimate children. He never married and had no legitimate heirs. His death in 1685 from a stroke led to the succession of his brother, James II.
Charles II's reign was a complex and eventful period in British history. While he faced significant challenges, including the religious and political divisions of the time, he also oversaw a period of cultural and scientific progress, contributing to the development of English literature, art, and science.