Overcrowding: Ships were often overcrowded, with hundreds of convicts crammed into small, dark, and unsanitary holds. This overcrowding led to poor air quality, the spread of disease, and a lack of privacy.
Inadequate food and water: Convicts were often given meager rations of food and water, which were often of poor quality and contaminated. This led to malnutrition, scurvy, and other diseases.
Physical abuse: Convicts were often subjected to physical abuse from the ship's crew. Beatings, floggings, and other forms of punishment were common.
Rape and sexual abuse: Female convicts were particularly vulnerable to rape and sexual abuse from the ship's crew and other convicts.
Medical neglect: Convicts who became ill or injured were often denied medical attention. This led to many unnecessary deaths.
Mortality rates: The mortality rates among convicts on transportation ships were extremely high. In some cases, up to half of the convicts died before reaching their destination.
Reforms: In the 19th century, there were a number of reforms to the transportation system, which led to improved conditions for convicts. These reforms included the use of larger and better-ventilated ships, the provision of better food and water, and the reduction of physical abuse and sexual violence.
Despite these reforms, transportation to penal colonies remained a harsh and dangerous experience. It was not until the late 19th century that transportation was finally abolished in most jurisdictions.