The use of torture as a means of obtaining confessions or information was widespread in the Middle Ages, and it continued to be practiced well into the 17th century. However, the practice of torture gradually declined during the Age of Enlightenment, as more humane and rational approaches to criminal justice emerged. In 1776, the French philosopher Voltaire published a treatise condemning the use of torture, and by the end of the 18th century, most European countries had abolished the practice.