The Losa nuraghe, near the town of Abbasanta in central western Sardinia, is one of the most important and best preserved sites of the nuragic culture • ISTOCK Scattered throughout Sardinia stand the remains of some 7,000 nuraghes, integrated with the elements and vegetation of the island. These colossal buildings, made up of one or more truncated cone towers and symbols of the cultural identity of this Italian island, still remain partly enigmatic for archaeologists. For what purpose were they erected? And what civilization is behind their construction? Today, scholars believe that the societies that built these nuraghes evolved from the evolution of social structures in the Third th millennium BC. J.-C., during the transition from the Neolithic to the Iron Age. It would therefore be in the Copper Age and, above all, in the Bronze Age, in the II th millennium BC. J.-C., that organized societies, able to redistribute and coordinate economic and human resources, and to carry out large-scale collective enterprises such as the construction of nuraghes, would have developed on the island. /P> Well-defended mansions The etymology of the word “nuraghe” provides some information on the function of these constructions. Early linguistic studies suggested a derivative of nur , designating a “accumulation of stones” or a “cavity in the earth”. But the eastern root nur also means "light" or "fire", a link with the hearth which could designate the dwelling. Recently, the term nuraghe has come to be understood as a "masonry structure" or a "stone tower". Currently, the scientific community considers almost unanimously that these towers had a residential and defensive vocation. Be that as it may, the intense archaeological work carried out in the last century has made it possible to understand the role of these constructions. Only a few rare researchers persist in considering them as places of worship or monumental tombs. Currently, the scientific community considers almost unanimously that these towers had a residential and defensive vocation. Likewise, the theory of an external influence in the construction of the first nuraghes has been ruled out, as it presupposed the island's dependence on the cultural and commercial relations maintained with the various civilizations of the Mediterranean. However, it has been demonstrated that Nuragic architecture presented significant differences with the megalithic monuments built in other places. Over the millennia, the evolution of the nuraghes passes from the simplest forms - those of the "protonuraghes" or "archaic nuraghes", of which only a few hundred examples remain - to much more complex and majestic structures, those of the classical nuraghi or so-called “tholos” nuraghi, the latter term referring to their cupola-like roof. Protonuraghes and classic nuraghes have in common the same construction technique:the walls are erected with blocks of cut stone, of medium or large size, between which smaller stones were inserted, in order to fill the empty spaces and to thus reinforcing the solidity of the whole. The construction technique evolved over time and reached its peak in the Middle Bronze Age and Late Bronze Age. At the end of this period, the walls had a double wall:they were made up of two parallel rows of stones between which smaller stones were placed – a technique that gave greater stability to the building. It is assumed that a binder made of mud was also used, and it seems likely that the walls of the interior rooms were covered with clay or another insulating material such as cork or wood. Real stones and fake domes The protonuraghes are born around 1600 BC. AD, Middle Bronze Period. They are impressive buildings, about 10 m high, made up of corridors and tiny rooms with flat roofs, whose stones are arranged without apparent regularity. These constructions were overhung by a terrace with small wooden chambers, some remains of which have been found. Archaeologists distinguish at least five categories of protonuraghes, which would correspond to as many evolutionary phases. The following period, which extends from 1400 to 950 BC. J.-C., is that of the Middle Bronze Age and Late Bronze Age. It is the time of the nuraghes with tholos, which are the true symbol of the nuragic civilization. The diameter of the towers gradually decreases, and their large circular rooms are covered with a false dome:a roof formed by circular rows of stones whose diameter is decreasing until closing the space to be covered. The tholos nuraghi bear some similarities to the great noble tombs of the Mycenaean culture of Greece, and it was long believed that this type of building was influenced by those of the Aegean. However, nuraghes and Mycenaean tombs have major differences. The Mycenaean tombs are dug into the ground:they are underground enclosures crowned by a tumulus which supports the roof, while the Sardinian constructions are not underground and are entirely built of dry stone. Moreover, the tholoi nuragic are much older than the tholoi Greeks. The origin of the nuraghi remains mysterious. If they resemble certain Greek tombs, this influence has been ruled out, because the nuraghes are much older. The tholos nuraghes, higher and more stylized than the protonuraghes, could be simple (formed of a single tower) or complex (composed of a central tower, a sort of dungeon that could be surrounded by up to five side towers connected by sturdy enclosures). The construction technique of nuraghes is one of the questions that have aroused the curiosity of researchers. It is known that side towers were sometimes added later to a simple nuraghe. But it is obvious that some nuraghes, with a central keep, side towers and bastions, were designed in this way from the start. In both cases, it is assumed that the circular plan was drawn with the aid of a wooden or metal instrument used as a compass, and that the location of the rooms and interior elements, such as the staircase, was planned. beforehand. Effective watchtowers To build the nuraghes, the researchers think that the stone blocks were slid on wooden piles by means of ramps and embankments which made it possible to hoist these blocks to the desired height. The stones were then superimposed in successive rows, and the blocks of each row were arranged slightly projecting towards the interior of the nuraghe, so that the diameter of the tower gradually decreased as it was raised. The outer walls and those of the inner rooms were usually built at the same time. The degree of sophistication of the nuraghes and the diversity of their distribution on the island are indicators of their respective functions. Some are in isolated and arid regions, or have been erected on the contrary on the coastal areas of the island, while others stand in the middle of valleys and plains. The simple tholos nuraghi were often built on mounds offering few economic resources and, as a rule, no village was present in the vicinity. As they are erected close to more complex buildings, it is believed that they were watchtowers that were probably part of a territorial control device where each tower had a specific function. Conversely, nuragic tholos complexes were built in areas rich in agricultural and pastoral resources and benefiting from a water supply. In this case, they were real fortifications, which sometimes constituted the residence of the tribal chief and his family. The architecture of certain buildings changed from the middle of the 10th th century BC. AD to house spaces intended for worship. If the initial function of the nuraghi was both defensive and residential, the architecture of certain buildings changed from the middle of the 10th th century BC. J.-C. to house spaces intended for worship. In addition, beyond the precise function of each nuraghe, all were part of a network comprising several main centers and secondary centers, in relation to the first. In coastal areas, the objective of this reciprocal link was to control landings, while inland it was to monitor the most suitable places for the smooth running of daily activities. Nuraghes were often surrounded by large villages formed of huts built of stone or, more rarely, of adobe (bricks dried in the sun). During the first phases of the nuragic period, the houses had only one room. But from the Iron Age, the interior space begins to be divided into several sectors. A complex and structured society From the different phases of its evolution to its decline, the Nuragic civilization lasts just over 1,000 years. It can therefore be assumed that, in such a long arc of time, the local populations have experienced profound social, economic and cultural changes. We know that territories that had become inhospitable due to the depletion of natural resources were abandoned in favor of regions offering better opportunities. Built in different periods and for different purposes, the nuraghes formed a dense network of thousands of constructions scattered throughout Sardinia. Nowadays, when we observe their extraordinary vestiges, these towers bear witness to a complex and structured society. They are the emblem of the civilization that erected them, even if – despite their number, their imposing appearance and their evocative power – they remain unknown beyond the Sardinian coasts. Find out more The Nuragic Civilization, by Paolo Melis, Carlo Delfino Editore, 2007.L’Alba dei nuraghi, by Giovanni Ugas, Fabula Editore, 2005 (in Italian). Timeline 1600-1400 BC. J.-C.Middle Bronze – Nuragic I. Origin and development of protonuraghes. Beginning of the construction of tholos nuraghes.1400-1200 BC. J.-C. Middle and final bronze – Nuragic II. Multiplication of tholos nuraghi, from the simplest to the most complex forms.1200-950 BC. AD Final bronze – Nuragic III. Some of the existing buildings are restructured and enlarged. Continuation of the tholos nuraghi.950-510 BC. AD First Iron Age – Nuragic IV. End of the construction of the nuraghes. Some are transformed to house places of worship.510-238 BC. Second Iron Age – Nuragic V. Period called "Punic" because of the Carthaginian domination over Sardinia. The fortifications of Su Nuraxi Located in the south of Sardinia, near Barumini, this nuraghic complex has been on the UNESCO World Heritage List since 1997. It consists of a central tower surrounded by four towers, from which its technical name of "four-lobed nuraghe". The towers are connected by bastions, and the whole complex is surrounded by an avant-mur (an outer defensive wall) with small towers. A large structured village surrounds the fortifications. The excavations carried out in the middle of the XX th century by Giovanni Lilliu, archaeologist who discovered the site and considered the father of Sardinian archaeology, have made it possible to identify several construction phases. An expert construction technique The domed chamber of the so-called “tholos” nuraghes is characterized by a gradual inclination of the walls inwards. This was obtained by arranging the stones in concentric rows along a gradually decreasing diameter:each row was placed projecting a few centimeters from the row below, until the small opening in the last row could be closed by a single slab. The stability of the stones was ensured by their regular arrangement and the use of reinforcing wedges inserted in the slots. This false dome roof can be seen in the complex nuraghes whose interiors had several floors. Places of decision and prayer Some huts in nuragic enclaves had a public function. The most respected people of the community met there to discuss problems concerning the tribe. It was certainly the seat of administrative and legal meetings, but it is assumed that they also fulfilled a religious function. The “meeting hut” of the nuraghe of Palmavera, in Alghero, had a circular layout and was larger than the other buildings in the rest of the village. A stone bench ran along the wall; in the center were a “nuraghe model” and a cylindrical seat; stone slabs bounded a rectangular space against the wall.
