- Depopulation: The war resulted in the deaths of an estimated 8 million people, reducing the population of Germany by about one-third.
- Economic devastation: The war caused widespread destruction of crops, livestock, and infrastructure, leading to famine, disease, and economic collapse in many areas.
Political:
- Peace of Westphalia: The war ended with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, which established the modern state system based on the principle of sovereignty.
- Rise of nation-states: The war accelerated the rise of nation-states and the decline of feudalism.
- Balance of power: The Peace of Westphalia established a balance of power among European states that prevented any one state from becoming too dominant.
Religious:
- Religious toleration: The war led to a greater degree of religious toleration in Europe, as the competing religious factions realized that religious uniformity could not be achieved through force.
- Protestant dominance: The war resulted in the Protestant Reformation becoming the dominant religion in northern Europe, while Catholicism remained dominant in southern Europe.
Cultural:
- Artistic and literary flourishing: The war also produced a flourishing of artistic and literary activity, including the works of Rembrandt, Rubens, and Shakespeare.
Social:
- Increased urbanization: The war caused many people to move from the countryside to the cities, which led to increased urbanization.
- Rise of the middle class: The war also saw the rise of the middle class, as merchants and traders benefited from the increased demand for goods and services.