1. Conquered Peoples:
- Some of the conquered peoples under Roman rule may have resented the loss of their independence, cultural suppression, and the imposition of Roman laws and customs.
2. Political Dissidents:
- Within the Roman Empire, there were political factions that opposed the prevailing power structure or the rule of specific emperors. These dissidents may have criticized the Pax Romana for consolidating power and suppressing dissent.
3. Lower Social Classes:
- The Pax Romana primarily benefited the upper classes and elites. The lives of the lower classes, including slaves, peasants, and urban poor, may not have significantly improved during this period. They might have felt excluded from the supposed peace and prosperity.
4. Religious Minorities:
- While religious tolerance was generally practiced in the Roman Empire, certain religious groups faced discrimination or suppression. Christians, Jews, and other minority religions may have experienced persecution during certain periods, leading them to view the Pax Romana negatively.
5. Barbarians Outside the Empire:
- Tribes and groups outside the borders of the Roman Empire may have viewed the Pax Romana as a symbol of Roman dominance and threat to their own autonomy. They might have seen the Pax Romana as a period of vulnerability for the empire and an opportunity for invasions.
6. Philosophers and Stoics:
- Some Stoic philosophers criticized the decadence and materialism that accompanied the Pax Romana. They believed that the pursuit of pleasure and luxury contradicted the principles of virtue and self-control.
It's important to note that while the Pax Romana brought stability, prosperity, and cultural exchange to the Roman world, it was also a complex and multifaceted period with its share of challenges and critiques.