Rome's political history is divided into three periods:Monarchy or Royalty (753-509 BC), Republic (509-27 BC) and Empire (27 BC-476 AD). Each period of Roman history has its own characteristics, which demonstrate the socio-economic and political evolution of that society.
In early times, before Etruscan domination, Rome resembled ancient Greek society, that is, it was based on organization in gentile communities. The gentile regime was structured around the gens, which brought together families identified by ties of consanguinity and religion. There was no private ownership of land - it belonged to the community.
The ultimate authority of each group was exercised by the “pater familias” (the father-head of the household). With Etruscan domination, the process of breaking up the ancient organization into gentile communities began. The expansion of commerce caused the development of cities and the increase in the number of inhabitants.
Rome became a major urban center and social inequalities began to emerge among the population. The division of labor gave rise to the process of private appropriation of land by the heads of gentile families – the "pater". The aggregates around the "pater" maintained their name and their traditions, forming the Roman aristocracy.
Roman Monarchy (753?-510 BC)
Although the names are believed to belong to fiction, there is solid evidence for the existence of an ancient monarchy, the growth of Rome and its struggles against neighboring peoples, the establishment of a dynasty of Etruscan princes, and its overthrow and abolition of the monarchy. The existence of a certain social organization is also likely, such as the division of the inhabitants into two classes:patricians and plebs.
Roman Republic (510 BC - 27 BC)
In place of the king, the citizenry elected annually two consuls. Only patricians could occupy the magistracies, but the discontent of the plebs gave rise to a violent struggle and the progressive appearance of social and political discrimination.
The conquest of Veyes in 396 BC started the decline of Etruscan civilization. Rome gained control of central Italy. Coalitions of Etruscans, Umbrians and Gauls to the north and Lucans and Samnites to the south were finally defeated.
In 264 BC, Rome began its struggle against Carthage for control of the Mediterranean. Carthage, which was the hegemonic maritime power, after the first two Punic Wars lost its position in favor of Rome. Cisalpine Gaul, Corsica, Sardinia and Hispania were submitted. Macedonia was faced in the Macedonian Wars, after which Rome managed to seize Greece, adopting much of its culture, and Asia Minor. In the third Punic War, Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus conquered and destroyed Carthage. Rome had created, in 131 years, an empire that dominated the Mediterranean.
Some extremely wealthy plebeian families allied with patrician families to exclude the rest of the citizens from the magistrates and the Senate. Meanwhile, the gradual disappearance of peasants developed an urban proletariat whose political opinion was not taken into account. Conflict between the aristocratic and popular parties was inevitable.
After the Social War, the Italic peoples obtained Roman citizenship.
During the war with Mithridates VI, the conflict broke out between Caio Mário, spokesman for the popular party, and Lúcio Cornélio Sila, leader of the aristocratic party. Sulla won the civil war and proclaimed himself dictator. From then on, the republican constitution was at the mercy of whoever had the strongest military support. Rome's rich agricultural economy declined and the city had to import much of its food.
In the year 67 BC, Gnaeus Pompey the Great was charged with leading the war against Mithridates. Meanwhile, his rival Gaius Julius Caesar acquired great prestige as leader of the popular party and found an ally in Marcus Licinius Crassus. Pompey, Crassus and Caesar constituted the so-called first triumvirate. Caesar obtained command of Gaul, where he made important conquests. Pompey was given command of Hispania and Crassus that of Syria. The latter's death led to the conflict between Caesar and Pompey. Rome fell into a period of disorder.
Caesar took Rome and forced Pompey to retreat to Greece. He introduced economic and administrative reforms in an attempt to defeat corruption and restore prosperity. He continued the war against Pompey and, after the victory, returned as dictator for life.
Caesar attracted the enmity of the aristocracy by ignoring republican traditions and was assassinated. Marcus Tullius Cicero tried to restore the Republic, but Mark Antony joined Marcus Aemilius Lepidus and Octavius to form the second triumvirate. The triumvirs outlawed and murdered their republican opponents and shared control of the Empire among themselves. Octavius, who had strengthened his position in the West by depriving Lepidus of his territory, found himself only facing Mark Antony. After the battle of Actium (31 BC), Octavius gained total supremacy over the territory.
Latin literature experienced a remarkable development during the so-called Ciceronian period (70-43 BC), represented by Caesar, Cicero, Terence, Catullus and Lucretius.
Roman Empire (27 BC - 476 AD)
The Empire succeeded the Republic of Rome. Augustus reorganized the territory, ending the corruption and extortion that had characterized the administration of the previous period. This period represents the height of the golden age of Latin literature, in which the poetic works of Virgil, Horace and Ovid and the prose work of Tito Livy stand out.
The following emperors of the Julius-Claudian dynasty were:Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius I and Nero. During the last few years, many excesses of power have been committed.
Vespasian, along with his sons Titus and Domitian, constituted the Flavian dynasty. They revived the simplicity of the early Empire and tried to restore the authority of the Senate and promote the welfare of the people.
Marco Cocceius Nerva (96-98) was the first of the so-called five good emperors, along with Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius. With Trajan, the Empire reached its maximum territorial extension and his successors stabilized the borders. The Antonine dynasty ended with the bloodthirsty Lucius Aurelius Commodus.
Trajan was Emperor of Rome in the year 98 and expanded the Empire through Central Europe and Mesopotamia thanks to his military victories. He undertook important civil engineering projects (built roads, canals and ports). He also instituted social reforms to rebuild cities and reduce poverty.
The Severus dynasty constituted:Lucius Septimius Severus, able ruler; Caracalla, famous for its brutality; Elagabalus, corrupt emperor; and Alexandre Severo, who stood out for his justice and wisdom.
Of the 12 emperors who ruled in the following years, almost all died violently. The Illyrian emperors arranged for a brief period of peace and prosperity to unfold. This dynasty included Claudius II the Gothic and Aurelian.
Diocletian carried out a number of social, economic and political reforms. After his tenure, there was a civil war that only ended with the accession of Constantine I the Great, who converted to Christianity and established his capital in Byzantium. Theodosius I reunified the Empire for the last time. After his death, Arcadius became Emperor of the East and Honorius, Emperor of the West.
The invading peoples gradually undertook the conquest of the West. Romulus Augustus, last emperor of the West, was deposed in the year 476. The Eastern Empire, also called Byzantine Empire, would last until 1453.
Roman Civilization
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