Francisco Pizarro , Spanish conqueror of the 16th century who submitted the Inca Empire to the Spanish crown and created the first colony of this country in the territory of what, after his death, was to be the Viceroyalty of Peru. The logical difficulties of communication between the colonies and the metropolis, and the growing economic needs of the latter to finance their wars in Europe meant for the first conquerors an unusual degree of autonomy and an explicit invitation to conquer new horizons and wealth; as well as a permanent focus of conflicts between the royal authority and the conquerors' own initiatives, as Pizarro's own adventures would come to demonstrate.
Data on the life of Francisco Pizarro
1470 – 1480 He is born in Trujillo.
1502 He leaves for America.
1513 He discovers the Pacific together with Núñez de Balboa.
1524 He leads the first expedition to Peru.
1529 In Toledo he agrees with Carlos V the capitulations on the conquered territory.
1533 The Inca Atahualpa is executed by the Spanish.
1541 He dies assassinated in his palace in Lima by supporters of Diego de Almagro.
In the footsteps of the country of the Incas
Francisco Pizarro, fundamental protagonist of the colonization of America during the imperial phase of the Spanish monarchy, was born in Trujillo (Cáceres) between 1470 and 1480, without being able to determine the exact date with precision . Natural son of Gonzalo Pizarro and Teresa González, his father distinguished himself in Italy fighting under the orders of the Great Captain, dying in Amaya's siege when he was an infantry colonel.
Although the versions about his childhood are contradictory —there are some fantastic legends about his childhood—, all the chronicles agree that Pizarro did not receive any education and that only when the needs of his military profession forced him to do so did he learn to read and write. rudimentarily. In 1502 he left for America, to go in 1509 from Santo Domingo with Alonso de Ojeda to tour the shores of Tierra Firme, and attend the foundation of the colony of San Sebastián in the Gulf of Uraba. There he was appointed by Ojeda, captain and lieutenant of the place . Later, in 1513, he accompanied Vasco Núñez de Balboa in the discovery of the South Sea (Pacific Ocean), where a cacique of the Las Perlas archipelago provided him with the first news about the existence of Peru, and under the orders of Pedradas Dávila took part in the conquest of Nombre de Dios and Panama. However, it was the conquest of that rich and powerful empire that he had news of in Vasco Núñez's expedition that obsessed him during those early years, further spurring his ambition by the news brought about the fabulous Empire of the Incas by Pascual de Andagoya. , on the way back from his trip down the San Juan River.
In 1524 Francisco Pizarro, Diego de Almagro and Hernando de Luque signed a contract in Panama to undertake the exploration and conquest of those mythical southern lands. Obtaining the corresponding permission from Governor Pedradas Dávila, Pizarro embarked on a ship on November 14, 1524 , he landed, after a long and painful navigation, in the port of Hunger, in that of Candelabria, and discovered a town that he called Pueblo Quemado, where he had to sustain several combats with its inhabitants.
Meeting again in Panama, Almagro, Luque and Pizarro signed the bases of a second association, subject on this occasion to the conditions imposed by Pedradas. According to them, Almagro was appointed as deputy to contain and direct Pizarro. This delicate measure, which did not please the latter, would sow the seed of the deep hatred that arose between the two conquerors.
In Peruvian lands
The associates bought two ships and two canoes, horses, arms and ammunition, and taking with them an expert pilot named Bartolomé Ruiz, Pizarro and Almagro left Panama for the south. After reaching the vicinity of the San Juan River (Colombia), the limit of the previous expedition, where the Spanish raided a town collecting some gold and supplies, Almagro returned to Panama to enlist more people with the collected gold. And while Pizarro settled on the river bank awaiting his return, Bartolomé Ruiz went ahead and explored the coast until he reached near Tumbes (already in Peru); There he met a group of settlers who were carrying valuable fabrics and gold and silver objects, and who made great considerations of the treasures that his territory hid, especially Cuzco, the capital. Gathered again the three adventurers, resumed navigation; off the small island of Gallo (Ecuador), the expedition was interrupted again for an even longer period of time:the reinforcement supplies brought by Almagro from Panama were insufficient to carry out the conquest of the territory, and the crew members they had begun to show signs of exhaustion in the constant struggle against the weather, the natives, and the terrain. After a violent argument—which almost ended in a duel—Almagro parted ways with Pizarro to return to Panama once more. The Panamanian governor, however, did not respond to his pleas on this occasion, only agreeing to send two ships to pick up the expeditionaries.
When they arrived at the island of Gallo, the enthusiasm among Pizarro's men was general. According to the chronicles of the time, the Spanish navigator, aware of his desperate situation and fearing to be left alone, drew a line on the ground with his sword, and pointing to the south, exclaimed to his men:«Comrades and friends, this It is the path of hardships, but through it one goes to Peru, to be rich». And while he pointed in the opposite direction, he concluded:«That way you go to rest, to Panama, but to be poor. Choose». Only thirteen heroes crossed the line to join Pizarro. With them he went on a raft to the island of Gorgona (Ecuador), where he stayed with his faithful followers for seven months. Pilot Ruiz then procured supplies for them and communicated to them the express order of the governor that they go to Panama within six months to report on what they had discovered, whatever it might be. Pizarro decided to take advantage of that period, and once again embarked with the pilot Ruiz and eleven of his men, he once again headed south. After picking up some local settlers in Tumbes, and visiting said city, he continued his journey round Cabo Blanco and anchored in the port of Paita, where he was received, as in Tumbes, with great curiosity and cordiality. Having passed the tip of Aguja and reached the port of Santa, after having traveled more than two hundred leagues along the Peruvian coast, Pizarro's companions convinced him of the need to return to Panama, the impossibility of conquering such a large country being evident. by so few men.
Already in Panama, the three associates did not find any support in Governor Pedro de los Ríos, widely overwhelmed by the magnitude of the discovery; It was then agreed that Pizarro would travel to Spain, to go personally to King Carlos V. After agreeing with his fellow adventurers that he would request the governorship of the new land for him, the advancement for Almagro, the bishopric for Luque, the alguacilazgo mayor for Ruiz and other mercedes for those who followed him, Pizarro left for Spain in the spring of 1528 .
The capitulations of Toledo
Overcoming some difficulties, Carlos V arranged the capitulation and seat in Toledo with the conqueror. The document was signed on July 26, 1529 and gave Pizarro the dignity of knight of Santiago as well as the appointment of captain general and governor of two hundred leagues of coast in New Castile (name with which the new territory was baptized). He also obtained the title of advance and chief bailiff of those lands, dignities promised to Almagro and Ruiz, granting those who remained in Panama notably inferior distinctions and titles. Great was Almagro's annoyance when he found out the content of the capitulations, although the reconciliation between the two was quickly made possible thanks to the intervention of Luque and the gesture of Pizarro, who resigned from the position in advance, and who promised not to ask for himself or for his brothers Juan, Gonzalo or Hernando any mercy until Almagro had achieved a government that would begin where his ended.
Clarified that point, the third expedition to Peru left in January 1531; It was made up of three ships and about 150 Spanish, Panamanian and Nicaraguan soldiers. Starting from the bay of San Mateo (located about a hundred leagues north of Tumbes), Pizarro's men set out by land along the coast, followed from the sea by ships. In the town of Coaqui, located between high mountains, they found food in abundance and a good pile of gold and silver, which allowed Pizarro to send the three ships to Panama and Nicaragua with 20,000 Castilians in gold, which would stimulate new adventurers willing to of booty After receiving a reinforcement ship commanded by Alonso de Riquelme, the expedition arrived at Puerto Viejo, very close to Tumbes and almost in Peruvian territory. With the help of the reinforcement of Sebastián Balcázar and Juan Fernández, Pizarro conquered the island of Puna, where 600 men and women from Tumbes were taken prisoner. This provoked a serious confrontation with the inhabitants of that city, who had always been hospitable towards the Spanish, obtaining the Spanish a new victory.
Resuming the march in May 1532, the conquerors advanced to the Paechos river basin and discovered the port of Paita, the best on the coast, where they established the colony of San Miguel, the first Spanish foundation in Peru. There Pizarro received for the first time the messengers of Huáscar, Inca of the Tahuantinsuyo Empire.
The crisis of the Inca Empire
In the course of the conquest of Peru, the Spaniards were to take great advantage of the deep crisis that was plaguing the Inca Empire at that time, plunged into a bloody civil war between the two sons of the last great emperor Huayna Cápac (the half-brothers Huáscar and Atahualpa), during which the former was defeated and killed by the latter.
For more than thirty years, Huayna Cápac had developed an expansive policy that had led the Inca Empire to its maximum extent. But despite its good organization and its wide network of administrative centers located in radius from the capital, Cuzco, the territory had acquired such an area that its administration had become difficult.
Huayna Cápac died in 1530, his son Huáscar was chosen as his successor, whose coronation in Cuzco was attended by all the great chiefs, except for his half-brother Atahualpa. This triggered a series of clashes between the two, the subsequent arrest of Atahualpa in the fortress of Tumipampa and, finally, open civil war, after the escape of the candidate for the crown. From that moment, Atahualpa assembled a powerful army, commanded by the famous generals Rumiñahui, Quisquís and Calcuchima. With them he began to reap important victories over the troops of his adversary.
The Inca Huáscar had not yet been taken prisoner when his envoys asked for Pizarro's support to remove the usurper Atahualpa from the throne. The Spanish conqueror immediately understood that an immediate intervention in the conflict would bring him enormous benefits, so on September 24, 1532, at the head of one hundred infantrymen and followed by his brother, he set out for the Andes After receiving a first Atahualpa's embassy, which invited him to meet him in Cajamarca, continued the march along narrow and steep paths, until he reached the outskirts of the town, from where he sent Hernando de Soto and his own brother on a reconnaissance visit to the place. . Accompanied by 35 horsemen, and after greeting Atahualpa on behalf of the Castilian adventurer, they were alarmed to see that the Inca had an army of more than 30,000 men.
On the night of November 15, 1532, Pizarro strategically distributed his few soldiers, hiding them at various points in the Plaza de Cajamarca. And after making an appointment with the monarch, to which he attended accompanied by a rich retinue, he sent Father Valverde, the chaplain of the Spanish army, who read him the requirement of submission to the sovereignty of the kings of the metropolis and to religion. Catholic. Atahualpa, who threw the Bible on the ground vigorously claiming everything that the Spaniards had taken from him, suffered the sudden attack of Pizarro's troops, falling prisoner.
Aware of the conquerors' ambition for wealth, Atahualpa promised them large amounts of gold in exchange for their freedom; Once the proposal was accepted by the Spanish leader, the Inca sent emissaries to collect the promised gold, and with them the order to kill his brother Huáscar, whom he had kept as a prisoner until then for fear that the Spaniards would put him back on the throne. . Accused of the murder of his brother, Atahualpa was executed in Cajamarca on August 29, 1533 , being replaced by another of his brothers, Manco Huallpa.
After the death of Atahualpa, a time of misrule followed in the country, rebelling several caciques, against whom Hernando de Soto and Pizarro marched. Manco Huallpa himself managed to leave Cuzco, where he was little more than a prisoner, and after inciting the country he provoked a bloody and massive battle, which caused the death of Juan Pizarro, Francisco's brother, and which was about to take his life. to Hernando, who came to be besieged in Cuzco by more than 10,000 indigenous people. The Spanish continued to establish colonies in the interior of the country. After successively taking Jauja, Cuzco (on November 15, 1533) and Quito, they entered the small village of Lima on January 18, 1535, which was called the City of the Kings at first, and later chosen as the capital of the kingdom.
The internal disputes
Conquering Trujillo shortly after Lima, Pizarro was surprised by the news that Almagro had wanted to take charge of the government of Cuzco, understanding that it was within his jurisdiction. Pizarro avoided the city dispute with his former associate by sending him to conquer Chile with the promise of sharing with him the government of Peru if the journey proved unsuccessful.
However, shortly after, his brother Hernando, who had left for Spain to hand over the royal fifth (the Castilian crown's share of the immense spoils obtained during the conquests), returned with the title of marquis for Pizarro and with that of advance for Almagro, who was granted two hundred leagues to the south of the territory attributed to Pizarro. This definitely decided the new advance to take Cuzco, where he also captured Hernando himself.
The religious Francisco de Bobadilla was appointed as arbitrator to resolve the differences between Pizarro and Almagro. After requesting that a commission inform him about the latitude at which the town of Santiago was located, he resolved that the latter remain in command of Cuzco and that Hernando be released. As soon as he was free, he took up arms, and seizing Almagro during the battle of Salinas (1538) sentenced him to death, executing him shortly after.
The local inhabitants did not hesitate to take advantage of the disputes that arose between their enemies, and King Manco, as well as other chiefs, raised powerful armies in various parts of the country:Villac-Umu led an army in Condesuyos. Tita did the same in the country of the coyas and the chief of Pocona faced Hernando Pizarro with 30,000 natives. All this decided the Spanish court to send Cristóbal Vaca de Castro to Peru, with full powers to try to remedy the difficult solution, landing him in Panama on January 14, 1541. Unfortunately, the measure had been adopted too late, and Vaca de Castro did not arrive in Peru in time to prevent on June 26 of that year a group of almagrists, led by Diego de Almagro, son of the deceased, from entering Pizarro's palace in Lima, killing him . His remains were buried that same night in the Lima chapel, where the remains of the viceroys are also preserved.
From his intimate relationship with a daughter of Atahualpa he had a daughter and a son. The son did not reach manhood and the daughter married her uncle Hernando.
The last Inca dynasty
Among the various wars that Peru suffered after the death of Pizarro, perhaps the bloodiest was the one that began after the uprising of Gonzalo, brother of Francisco, as a result of the arrival in 1543 of Blasco Núñez de Vela, first viceroy of the Peru named by Carlos V. Núñez de Vela was defeated by Pizarro's army and executed in Añaquito in 1546. The constant dissensions between the conquerors themselves did not prevent, despite everything, the consolidation of Spanish rule over the new lands.
The successors of the Inca dynasty took refuge in the mountains of the Sierra de Vilacabamba, sporadically confronting the invaders. In May 1572, Túpac Amaru, the last Inca emperor, was executed in Cuzco by order of the new viceroy Francisco de Toledo, thus ending the hope of resurrection for the ancient inhabitants of the country.
With the only potential focus of rebellion eliminated, Lima became the nerve center of Spanish power over South America and the seat of a viceroyalty whose vast jurisdiction extended over all conquered territory in South America, with the exception of Venezuela. The city rapidly increased in wealth, soon housing a powerful aristocratic class.
Despite the fact that the local inhabitants were cruelly exploited and forced to work in the mines under subhuman conditions, only a popular rebellion shook the Spanish government before the process of independence in the 19th century. The revolt, which came close to achieving success, was led by a cacique who called himself Tupac Amaru II, began in 1780 and was suffocated in 1782. Tupac Amaru II and thousands of his followers were tortured and executed as a lesson and a half. deterrent for future generations of indigenous people.
The traits of Spanish colonization in America
Pizarro should be highlighted as a clear personification of many of the characteristics that distinguished the Spanish colonization in America. This was carried out by individuals representing the lowest social echelon, and Pizarro was in effect, for a long time, a man without any school education. Most of the conquests made during the imperial phase of the Spanish monarchy were the result of personal initiative, only later backed by the power of the State. In that sense, Pizarro was helpless for most of his epic, reaching the Inca Atahualpa with the help of a hundred men. The Spanish crown never gave him his support before reliably verifying the consistency of his discoveries.
Pizarro, like Hernán Cortés in the conquest of Mexico, benefited from a situation of internal discord, and took advantage of the deep crisis that the Inca Empire was going through upon its arrival in Peru, taking great advantage of the surprise factor.