1. Wars of the Roses (England)
- Civil war between the rival noble houses of York and Lancaster for control of the English throne.
- Ended in 1485 with Henry Tudor's victory and the establishment of the Tudor dynasty.
2. Fall of Constantinople (1453)
- Ottoman Turks capture Constantinople (Istanbul), the capital of the Byzantine Empire, marking the end of the Byzantine era and the rise of the Ottoman Empire.
3. Renaissance
- Flourished in Europe during this period, characterized by a revival of classical art, literature, and learning.
- Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael were among the prominent Renaissance artists.
4. Printing Press Invented (1440s)
- Johann Gutenberg developed a printing press with movable type, revolutionizing book production and facilitating the dissemination of knowledge.
5. Spanish Inquisition (1478-1834)
- Instituted by the Spanish monarchy to maintain Catholic orthodoxy and combat heresy, resulting in the persecution and punishment of individuals deemed as heretics.
6. Portuguese Explorations
- Portuguese explorers, including Bartolomeu Dias and Vasco da Gama, made significant advances in maritime exploration, paving the way for European discoveries and trade routes to the East.
7. Columbus Reaches the Americas (1492)
- Christopher Columbus, an Italian explorer funded by the Spanish monarchy, reaches the Americas, initiating European colonization of the Western Hemisphere.
8. Protestant Reformation
- Initiated by Martin Luther in 1517 with the 95 Theses, challenging certain practices and doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church, leading to the emergence of Protestantism as a distinct religious movement.
9. Machiavelli's "The Prince" (1513)
- Italian political philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli wrote "The Prince," a treatise on acquiring and maintaining political power, which influenced later political thought.
10. Spice Trade and Colonization
- The demand for spices, such as cinnamon, nutmeg, and cloves, from Southeast Asia prompted European powers to establish colonies and trading posts in Asia, Africa, and the Americas.
11. Aztec Empire
- The Aztec civilization flourished in central Mexico, until its conquest by Hernán Cortés and Spanish conquistadors in 1521.
12. Inca Empire
- The extensive Inca Empire, centered in South America, was also conquered by Spanish conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro in the 1530s.
This period marked significant shifts in politics, religion, culture, and exploration that laid the foundation for future global developments.