1. Election of 1800 and the Democratic-Republican Victory: In 1800, Thomas Jefferson, representing the Democratic-Republican party, defeated incumbent President John Adams in a highly contested presidential election. The victory marked a significant political transition in the United States, as the Federalist Party, which had dominated the government since its founding, lost control.
2. Midnight Appointments: During the final weeks of his presidency, President Adams engaged in what became known as the "Midnight Appointments." Fearing the power that the incoming Jefferson administration would have, Adams sought to fill as many federal positions as possible with Federalist sympathizers. Among these appointments were 42 circuit judges and justices of the peace. These appointments were made on February 24, 1801, shortly before Jefferson's inauguration.
3. Delivery of Commissions and Jefferson's Inauguration: The delivery of commissions to the appointed judges was entrusted to Secretary of State John Marshall, a staunch Federalist and close ally of President Adams. Marshall signed and sealed the commissions but did not deliver all of them before the end of Adams' term. Consequently, when Jefferson took office on March 4, 1801, some commissions had not been delivered, including the one for William Marbury as a justice of the peace in the District of Columbia.
4. Jefferson's Policy and Refusal to Deliver the Commission: Jefferson's Democratic-Republican Party was not in favor of many of the "Midnight Appointments," as they viewed them as attempts by the Federalists to maintain control despite their loss in the election. As a result, Jefferson ordered Secretary of State James Madison not to deliver the outstanding commissions. This included Marbury's commission as a justice of the peace.
These events set the stage for the legal dispute that eventually led to the landmark Supreme Court case Marbury v. Madison, where the Court grappled with questions of judicial review, the scope of judicial power, and the limits of executive authority.