The family life of the Canadiens in the 1930s and early 1940s was characterized by a rigid gender division of labor. This was an unchanging law of nature:while a male identity depended on his ability to materially 'support' his wife and children, the role of a married woman was to give birth and raise children and take care of the household which now became her designated workplace as it was not socially acceptable for a woman to work outside her home.
However, due to the severe economic depression of the 1930s and the unique increase in the level of unemployment, the great need for additional income has allowed certain accommodation within this rigid breadwinner / homemaker model.
For example, housewives living in the industrial capital of the province of Quebec, Montreal, which in the 1930s housed around 60% of the unemployed Quebecois [1], were forced to turn "their feminine expertise into hard money" [2]:they worked as homeowners, selling homemade food, managing family budgets and saving money by sewing clothes, buying cheaper food and searching for cheaper but cozy apartments.
Introduction
This article would argue that despite the traditional rigidity of gender division of labor in the household, often ignored and unseen female housework was extraordinarily crucial to curbing the miserable economic situation that families faced during (and after) the Great Depression of the 1930s. century.
I will focus on the effects of the Great Depression and World War II (1939-1945) on the private sector of poor working class families living in Quebec slums.
Sex-based division of labor within households
Until the mid-1970s, French Canadian families were based on marriage , since a man and a woman could live together "only if they were bound by a legal union." [3] It was estimated that around 90 percent of French Canadians born after 1900 and before 1950 married and most of them divorced with death. [4]
This was mainly due to the strong regional influence of the Catholic Church, which did not accept or tolerate divorces [5]:they were considered illegal and immoral. [6]
According to 1930 The Canadian Bride's reference book The book was usually presented to young Canadian brides at the beginning of their marriage as a useful guide to recent marriage-related issues [7] - "marriage is the highest form of partnership" [8] as it gives birth to the highest relationship in human life, and enriches the bride with dignity, beauty and honor. [9]
From the first pages, this book emphasizes the importance of the gender division of labor in the household by proclaiming that while "men make houses, women make homes" [10] - that is, while men have his designated job of being a breadwinner , or the person responsible for the family's financial stability, has the wife here the job of being a stay-at-home wife and a mother [11] The book therefore warns the bride to "be prepared to make [her] share in the new partnership in home life." [12]
This was a traditional and widely accepted division of gender roles in a family at the time.
As the 'highest form of partnership', marriage thus created "a community of property , legally shared equally by both spouses, but administered by the husband. "[13] Although it may seem that the term sounds egalitarian, the last words are the most important, since the husband's administrative rights meant that in practice he could arrange the couple's property as he wished. [14] This gender hierarchy applied even after a man's death:If he did not write a will, his property passed to his eldest son, and thus "easier male management of households and concentration of property among a small number of men." [15] In this way, married women and small children remained financially dependent.
Women's property rights under Quebec's civil law were even more limited:a deceased husband's separate property in the absence of a will was distributed to all his children or heirs, "with the spouse ranked as 13 th in the hierarchy of potential requirements. "[16]
In addition, in 1940, Quebec became the last province in Canada to grant women the right to vote
Homemade
Maternity leave was considered "the main object of marriage and sexuality" [17] due to the religious dogmas of the time, which portrayed it as one of the central elements of women's feminine identity since it ensured the continuation of 'race'. [18] In fact, the Canadian Bride's reference book , "A real woman's boyfriend's desire is to be a mother" [19], since children represent the security of the household and the nation, evoke interest, stability and happiness for the family and fulfill the mother's days with new joys. [20]
Regarding fertility in Quebec , historians highlight 3 main periods [21]:
- Before 1921, a woman would have an average of 3.5 children, which was due to a high degree of infertility due to the high popularity of celibate Catholic orders, as well as the very high proportion of women who had more than six children;
- The interwar period was characterized by a declining proportion of large families and growth of families with three or four children, and thus resulted in an average of 2.5 children per woman;
- The years after 1960 led to a higher proportion of childless women (due to voluntary infertility caused by the availability of various methods of contraception, major societal changes, the decline in the Catholic Church's influence and the entry of married women into the post-Pacific Quebec labor force) and dominance of families with two children. This led to an average of 1.6 children per woman.
Due to the economic difficulties of the 1930s, many couples (illegally) tried to control fertility by using different methods of contraception [22] because "larger families meant difficult times" [23], as children had to be fed, dressed, educated and generally cared for, which was both physically and financially stressful. [24]
Yet there were still many families who, despite their miserable financial situation, did not return to contraception and gave birth to as many children as possible. [25]
This was due to a combination of factors, including the religious background of a married couple, who viewed birth as "the law of the Church" [26], their own experience of growing up in large families, and their ignorance of birth control methods. [27]
Often, however, the women who did not use contraception went through anxiety throughout the pregnancy, and felt that they could not meet the needs of the children. [28]
The Breadwinner
The husband's role as sole provider of his family, which represented a key element of his masculine identity, was significantly shaken by the economic consequences caused by the Great Depression of the 1930s.
In October 1930, Sherbrooke The newspaper published a public letter from the Department of Trade and Commerce to Canadian housewives - described as dependent on either husband, father, brother or son to raise money to complete the housework - which was "encouraged to protect the job" by [their] carriers by always giving a Canadian produced article preference over one that is imported. ”[29]
Due to the rise of these protectionist policies and stock market crash in 1929, "Canada's gross domestic product fell by 42 percent in nominal dollars, industrial activity fell by 43 percent, and export volume fell by over 56 percent" [30], While Unemployment , which was estimated at around 3 per cent in 1929, has risen drastically to around 24 per cent over the next four years. [31]
This decline in international trade has started a chain reaction that has negatively affected every sphere in Montreal, Quebec :Since the city was the largest grain port in North America, the drastic collapse in wheat prices due to the aforementioned decline in international trade has led to a drastic reduction in total export value by more than a third. [32] This incident has strongly affected dockworkers who received significant pay cuts and layoffs, as well as hundreds of drivers and carriers who now had fewer goods to transport. [33]
The heavy industry, the port and railway sectors, which were most affected since they were extremely dependent on declining international trade, have later also affected other sectors, such as retail, services and financial sectors, and even real estate, caused by a sudden rise in unemployment. [ 34]
The most important victims of unemployment were paid employers, and especially unskilled and semi-skilled workers [35], who may be fired due to desk it was caused by the rapid mechanization of factories and the weakening of workers' skills. [36]
Another important reason for the increase in unemployment was the mass immigration of unskilled and agricultural workers from Asian and African countries, as well as the proletarianization of indigenous peoples who were willing to work for the same pay as children. [37]
These factors forced many to work in a number of random jobs up to the point where they could not find any small jobs at all and became unemployed, while still being responsible for feeding the children and wives.
Any "man who had this experience suffered a profound attack on [his] masculine dignity." [38]
Breadwinner / Homemaker Model Accommodation:Survival Tactics
Since the beginning of the industrial revolution, women's involvement in the labor force has increased dramatically. For example, from 1891 to 1921, women's participation in clerical and sales work increased from 8,530 to about 128,000 and from 150,649 to 240,572 in industrial work. [39]
Financial difficulties caused by the Great Depression forced the implementation of some accommodation to the rigid breadwinner / homemaker model as even more women began working for wages during the 1930s to help their husbands alleviate financial suffering.
However, most wives were not allowed to work outside their homes by husbands, as this reversal of traditional roles would have been a "direct threat to their superior position as a homemaker" [40] as well as a major blow to their pride. [ 41]
Similarly, unemployed husbands usually did not help share their wives' responsibilities related to motherhood and housekeeping because of the same threat of reversing traditional family roles and diminishing masculinity and pride:motherhood and housekeeping were "so deeply identified with femininity that it seemed inconceivable that it could be a man's responsibility. "[42]
Domestic production and child labor
Most women completed some form of domestic production or 'preparation', such as knitting, preparing and selling homemade meals or washing clothes for a small salary of between $ 3 and $ 10 a week. [43]
The reason behind the fact that women's wages were usually a fraction of men's, regardless of sector, was the widespread "assumption that a patriarchal breadwinner brought home the bulk of household wages." [44] In fact, their wages were downplayed as 'pin money'. or a 'small' addition to the family budget. [45]
However, it would be wrong to perceive the housewife's homework as this seemingly small contribution, since it sometimes amounted to "as much as 50% of the breadwinner's salary" [46] and has usually "made the difference between living below or just slightly above the poverty line." [ 47]
It should be noted that daughters have also contributed to household wages:both monetaryly by doing something "nice" in textile factories and as their mother's helpers by doing housework and taking care of their younger siblings, thus freeing up some time for their mothers' domestic productions towards salary. [48] Of course, by taking responsibility for younger siblings, girls were trained in motherhood - the central commitment expected of women during that period. [49]
Boys, on the other hand, had to go through apprenticeships with the expectation that with age and experience the income level will rise. Boys could join the workplace from the age of eight until the late 1870s, when it was changed to 12 years or age [50], and had to work hard by following "the hours of daylight instead of a clock on the wall." [ 51]
Children were often sent to dangerous workplaces and could be punished by their employers by arbitrary blows ("a crack over the head with their fists" [52]) or imprisoned in the factory 'black hole' - "a windowless room in the factory basement for up to 7 hours at a time. "[53]
Budgeting
However, housewives' primary domestic activity was managing the family budget. [54]
According to The Canadian Brides' Reference Book , "The harmony of the home depends to a large extent on the wise payment of the income." [55] the lengthy discussion between both partners and their compromise.
This emphasis on mutual understanding between spouses has also been outlined in Ada Hart Arlitt's 1942 book Family Relationships :In one of the chapters entitled "Husband and Wife Relations", the author emphasizes the importance of proper management of joint property - that is, the family budget - which for the sake of family stability "should be shared without dispute and without pointing out which member of the partnership contributed. ”[57]
Per Arlitt, if the joint budget is used by one partner, another must always be notified [58], since "dishonesty on the part of one or both parties can tarnish the marriage to the breaking point." [59]
Nevertheless, homeowners who depended on their dependents often felt that the money, which they did not earn on them and which they had to manage as part of their husband-wife contract, was not their right. [60] This fact prevented them from complaining that they did not have enough money, thus leading to the perpetuation of "the myth that their husbands were still sufficient suppliers." [61]
The Canadian Brides' Reference Book suggests for necessities - determined by the family's standard of living- to be planned first. [62]
The authors of the book argue that the largest expenses should be paid for shelter, food and operating costs, while the rest should be spent on clothing and leisure. [63]
However, with the 'arrival' of the Great Depression, "making ends meet" became a real balance "[64] for many working-class families who could barely afford to buy a minimum for themselves.
Budgeting thus became their obsession when they tried to save money on everything:housewives made the family meals of the cheapest ingredients, sewed most of the clothes and household clothes and were forced to live with their families in substandard accommodation with not enough room for everyone due. to the high rents. [65]
To be fair, in such difficult times, families could have relied on public assistance payments But for a breadwinner to publicly admit that he was unable to support the family, it meant not only a painful acceptance of "a deep attack on [his] masculine dignity" [66], but also the constant humiliation of society as considered unemployed as lazy. [67]
Therefore, many families were not dependent on relief for a long time and tried to survive on their own.
Surviving , women were forced to negotiate every price with a store owner and rely on various survival strategies, such as buying meat for Saturday night, spoiled vegetables and fruits and even starving to feed their children. [68]
The significance of every cent for housewives' budget management was illustrated in the December 1923 issue of Sherbrooke the newspaper, which published an announcement from 'Sherbrooke Pure Milk' - the leading distributor of milk in Montreal - which decided not to increase milk prices by one cent per quarter due to the fierce competition between farmers and the laws of supply and demand stemmed from it, and prevented the price increase. [69]
Rental payments
Rental payments occupied the largest share of the family's expenses, which increased especially after the start of World War II, as Montreal's population has increased drastically due to the sudden availability of work in the city's thriving factories, which stimulated a housing crisis > and allowed landlords to speculate in rates and choose from potential tenants. [70]
Landlords could thus easily evict tenants if they delayed the rent payment or even for no reason, to charge new tenants with higher rents. [71]
Therefore, working-class families were forced to move out of their homes (sometimes every year), and housewives were responsible for finding cheaper and more comfortable replacements. [72]
Go back to tradition
Interestingly, after the war, Canadians had a strong desire to return to tradition - that is, "a normalization regime, dependent fathers and home-made mothers" [73] - as a way to achieve security. This is also one of the most crucial explanations behind the origins of the baby boom .
This search for 'home' or homeliness was personified by the white middle class that was constantly portrayed on television. That is, "imposed from above through state policy and embraced from below by many Canadians, gender roles were shaped in the 1950s and early 1960s in accordance with a nostalgic past." [74]
the conclusion
It is undeniable that most working-class families during and after the Great Depression have been very poor even after housewives took on a stricter budget management role and performed domestic production for little pay.
However, it is also true that housewives' financial dependence on their dependents "nevertheless camouflaged the dependence of the family and society on the work they performed, which was unpaid and ignored" [75] - the work that has contributed significantly to mitigating the effects of the Great Depression on the family. (already miserable) financial situations.
Bibliography:
- Baillargeon, Denyse. "'If you did not have money, you had no problems, did you?':Working-class housewives in Montreal during the Great Depression." Women's History Review 1, no. 2 (June 1992):217–37. https://journals-scholarsportal-info.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/details/09612025/v01i0002/217_yhnmyhwhdtgd.xml.
- Baillargeon, Denyse. "Indispensable, but not a citizen:The housewife in the Great Depression." In Competing Canadian Citizenship:Historical Readings , edited by Dorothy E. Chunn, Robert J. Menzies, and Robert L. Adamoski, 179–99. Broadview Press, 2002.
- Belshaw, John Douglas. "Gender roles." In Canadian History:Pre-Confederation . BCcampus, 2015. https://opentextbc.ca/preconfederation/chapter/10-7-gender-roles/.
- Belshaw, John Douglas. "Rise of a Working Class." In Canadian History:Post-Confederation . BCcampus, 2016. https://opentextbc.ca/postconfederation/chapter/3-4-rise-of-a-working-class/.
- Clarkson, Chris and John Douglas Belshaw. "Families and Property in Canada." In Canadian History:Post-Confederation . BCcampus, 2016. https://opentextbc.ca/postconfederation/chapter/7-4-families-and-property-rights-in-canada/.
- Fahrni, Magda. "World War II:War Production and War Effort." In Montreal:The Story of a North American City , edited by Dany Fougères and Roderick MacLeod, 2:37–73. McGill-Queen's University Press, 2017.
- "French Canadian Families." Encyclopedia.com . Opened September 20, 2021. https://www.encyclopedia.com/reference/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/french-canadian-families.
- Minister of Trade and Industry. "Protect your breadwinner!" Sherbrooke Daily Record . October 13, 1930. http://numerique.banq.qc.ca/patrimoine/details/52327/3001933?docsearchtext=breadwinner.
- "Milk prices are unchanged in Sherbrooke." Sherbrooke Daily Record . December 1, 1932. http://numerique.banq.qc.ca/patrimoine/details/52327/3003829?docsearchtext=Montreal%20housewife.
- Rutherdale, Robert and John Douglas Belshaw. "Gender roles after the wars." In Canadian History:Post-Confederation . BCcampus, 2016. https://opentextbc.ca/postconfederation/chapter/10-7-gendered-roles-after-the-wars/. Tlichereau, Sylvie. "The years of the Great Depression." In Montreal:The Story of a North American City , edited by Dany Fougères and Roderick MacLeod, 2:5–36. McGill-Queen's University Press, 2017.
- The Canadian Bride's reference book . Winnipeg:Merton Corporation Ltd., 1930. http://www.canadiana.ca/view/oocihm.9_08625/2?r=0&s=1.
Notes:
[1] Denyse Baillargeon, "'If You Didn't Have Money, You Had No Problems, Did You?':Working Class Housewives in Montreal During the Great Depression," Women's History Review 1, no. 2 (June 1992):pp. 217-237, https://journals-scholarsportal-info.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/details/09612025/v01i0002/217_yhnmyhwhdtgd.xml, 218.
[2] Denyse Baillargeon, "Indispensable, but Not a Citizen:The Housewife in the Great Depression," in Contesting Canadian Citizenship:Historical Readings , ed. Dorothy E. Chunn, Robert J. Menzies, and Robert L. Adamoski (Broadview Press, 2002), pp. 179-199, 183.
[3] "French Canadian Families" Encyclopedia.com , opened September 20, 2021, https://www.encyclopedia.com/reference/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/french-canadian-families.
[4] Ibid.
[5] Ibid.
[6] John Douglas Belshaw, "Gender Roles," in Canadian History:Pre-Confederation (BCcampus, 2015), https://opentextbc.ca/preconfederation/chapter/10-7-gender-roles/.
[7] The Canadian Bride's reference book (Winnipeg:Merton Corporation Ltd., 1930), http://www.canadiana.ca/view/oocihm.9_08625/2?r=0&s=1, 2.
[8] The Canadian Brides Reference Book, Ibid, 7.
[9] Ibid.
[10] The Canadian Bride's reference book , Ibid, 8.
[11] Ibid.
[12] Ibid.
[13] John Douglas Belshaw and Chris Clarkson, "Families and Property in Canada", in Canadian History:Post-Confederation (BCcampus, 2016), https://opentextbc.ca/postconfederation/chapter/7-4-families-and-property-rights-in-canada/.
[14] Ibid.
[15] Ibid.
[16] Ibid.
[17] Baillargeon, "'If You Had No Money, You Had No Problems, Did You Have It?':Working-Class Housewives in Montreal During the Great Depression," Ibid, 221.
[18] Baillargeon, "Indispensable, but Not a Citizen:The Housewife in the Great Depression," Ibid, 191.
[19] The Canadian Bride's reference book , Ibid, 148.
[20] Ibid.
[21] "French Canadian Families," Ibid.
[22] Baillargeon, "'If You Had No Money, You Had No Problems, Did You Have It?':Working-Class Housewives in Montreal During the Great Depression," Ibid, 221.
[23] Baillargeon, "'If You Had No Money, You Had No Problems, Did You Have It?':Working-Class Housewives in Montreal During the Great Depression," Ibid, 222.
[24] Baillargeon, "Indispensable, but Not a Citizen:The Housewife in the Great Depression," Ibid, 192.
[25] Baillargeon, "'If You Didn't Have Money, You Had No Problems, Did You?':Working-Class Housewives in Montreal During the Great Depression," Ibid, 222.
[26] Ibid.
[27] Ibid.
[28] Baillargeon, "'If You Didn't Have Money, You Had No Problems, Did You?':Working-Class Housewives in Montreal During the Great Depression," Ibid, 223.
[29] Minister of Trade and Industry, "Protect your breadwinner's job!" Sherbrooke Daily Record , October 13, 1930, pp. 1-8, http://numerique.banq.qc.ca/patrimoine/details/52327/3001933?docsearchtext=breadwinner, 4.
[30] Sylvie Taschereau, "The Years of the Great Depression," in Montreal:The Story of a North American City , ed. Dany Fougères and Roderick MacLeod, vol. 2 (McGill-Queen's University Press, 2017), pp. 5-36, 6.
[31] Ibid.
[32] Taschereau, Ibid, 7.
[33] Ibid.
[34] Taschereau, Ibid, 9.
[35] Ibid.
[36] Roy, Ibid, 151.
[37] John Douglas Belshaw, "Rise of a Working Class", in Canadian History:Post-Confederation (BCcampus, 2016), https://opentextbc.ca/postconfederation/chapter/3-4-rise-of-a-working-class/.
[38] Baillargeon, "Indispensable, but Not a Citizen:The Housewife in the Great Depression," Ibid, 184.
[39] Belshaw, "Rise of a Working Class," Ibid.
[40] Baillargeon, "Indispensable, but Not a Citizen:The Housewife of the Great Depression," Ibid, 186.
[41] Ibid.
[42] Baillargeon, "Indispensable, but Not a Citizen:The Housewife in the Great Depression," Ibid, 184.
[43] Baillargeon, "'If You Had No Money, You Had No Problems, Did You Have It?':Working-Class Housewives in Montreal During the Great Depression," Ibid, 225.
[44] Belshaw, "Rise of a Working Class," Ibid.
[45] Ibid.
[46] Ibid.
[47] Baillargeon, "Indispensable, but Not a Citizen:The Housewife of the Great Depression," Ibid, 183.
[48] Belshaw, "Rise of a Working Class," Ibid.
[49] Belshaw, "Gender Roles", Ibid.
[50] Belshaw, "Rise of a Working Class," Ibid.
[51] Belshaw, "Gender Roles", Ibid.
[52] Belshaw, "Rise of a Working Class," Ibid.
[53] Ibid.
[54] Baillargeon, "Indispensable, but Not a Citizen:The Housewife of the Great Depression," Ibid, 186.
[55] The Canadian Bride's reference book , Ibid, 9.
[56] Ibid.
[57] Ada Hart Arlitt, "Husband and Wife Relationships", in Family Relationships (McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1942), pp. 126-148, https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.217081/page/n11/mode/2up, 138.
[58] Arlitt, Ibid, 139.
[59] Arlitt, Ibid, 146.
[60] Baillargeon, "Indispensable, but Not a Citizen:The Housewife in the Great Depression," Ibid, 187.
[61] Ibid.
[62] The Canadian Brides Reference Book, Ibid, 14.
[63] Ibid.
[64] Baillargeon, "'If You Had No Money, You Had No Problems, Did You Have It?':Working-Class Housewives in Montreal During the Great Depression," Ibid, 225.
[65] Baillargeon, "Indispensable, but Not a Citizen:The Housewife in the Great Depression," Ibid, 187.
[66] Baillargeon, "Indispensable, but Not a Citizen:The Housewife in the Great Depression," Ibid, 184.
[67] Taschereau, Ibid, 16.
[68] Baillargeon, "Indispensable, but Not a Citizen:The Housewife of the Great Depression," Ibid, 189.
[69] "Milk prices remain unchanged in Sherbrooke," Sherbrooke Daily Record , December 1, 1932, pp. 1-8, http://numerique.banq.qc.ca/patrimoine/details/52327/3003829?docsearchtext=Montreal%20housewife, 6.
[70] Magda Fahrni, "World War II:War Production and War Operations", in Montreal:The History of a North American City , ed. Dany Fougères and Roderick MacLeod, vol. 2 (McGill-Queen's University Press, 2017), pp. 37-73, 49.
[71] Ibid.
[72] Baillargeon, "'If You Had No Money, You Had No Problems, Did You Have It?':Working-Class Housewives in Montreal During the Great Depression," Ibid, 227.
[73] John Douglas Belshaw and Robert Rutherdale, "Gender Roles After the Wars," in Canadian History:Post-Confederation (BCcampus, 2016), https://opentextbc.ca/postconfederation/chapter/10-7-gendered-roles-after-the-wars/.
[74] Ibid.
[75] Baillargeon, "Indispensable, but Not a Citizen:The Housewife in the Great Depression," Ibid, 199.