For the historian concerned with the ancient world, the availability of sources is far from self-evident. Some questions remain unanswered because no documents are available, others are unexpectedly solved after the discovery of a new source or through the application of new research techniques. Our image of the past is therefore not fixed, but is determined again and again by what coins, inscriptions and papyri tell us.
In general, there is less interest in the process of source research than in the research result. Nevertheless, this is relevant, especially because new sources are still emerging thanks to archaeological campaigns, but also because research is facilitated by modern technological developments. Although, in accordance with the law of diminishing added value, most new sources do not provide much new information, but rather confirm the existing picture, it still happens regularly that spectacular finds are made.
Although it is difficult to give an exact categorization of ancient sources, a distinction is often made between archaeological remains, literary texts and documentary sources. Material remains, which fall under archaeology, and literary sources, ie texts written by ancient authors for a public, are not considered in this contribution. Three main types of documentary sources of classical antiquity are central here:coins, inscriptions and papyri. On the basis of some recent examples, it will be shown that they still provide new data and that the research on ancient historical sources is in full swing.
Coins
Coins are a particularly valuable resource for Antiquity. Not only can they provide a lot of data for monetary or economic issues, but they can also provide a wealth of information about political history. In the Greek world living rulers had themselves depicted on coins since the time of Alexander the Great and this practice is also reflected in Roman emperors. The ruler, or one of his relatives, was depicted on the face of the coin; the reverse could be anything from military attributes to personified virtues. Texts were also struck on coins. This allowed a coin to convey a large amount of information in image and word and therefore coins are very useful as a medium to show who is boss and what qualities and achievements the person in question prided himself on.
Recent research has shown that the design of coins in Rome in the early Imperial period was deliberate and that coins with appropriate slogans were sent to certain areas. In this sense, a coin is therefore a means of propaganda, which could also be used in the struggle for leadership. However, the discussion about who exactly was responsible for the images and texts used is still ongoing.
Interpretation of coins can help reconstruct political history. In general, the coinage is reserved for the (lawful) ruler. The image of the Roman emperor on coins is therefore a sign of his emperorship. But pretenders to the throne also appropriated that status, and showed it on coins. An example is the third century, when the Roman Empire trembled to its foundations and, among other things, the imperial succession was a delicate matter. In the second half of that century, pretenders to the throne claimed the emperorship and minted coins in various areas. In 2003, for example, the coin of Domitian II was found using a metal detector in Oxfordshire. Although Domitian II is not otherwise known as emperor, this find makes it clear that he managed to usurp the emperorship, although his success was limited geographically and of very short duration.
Inscriptions
Even in times when writing was still in development, certain texts, which apparently had great value to the author, were chiseled in stone or other durable material and thus made visible to the public, including from later generations. There are different types of inscriptions, relating both to public decision-making of cities or agencies, as well as to private life.
An important text that survived on a bronze plate and was found in 1989 in Andalusia - again with the help of a metal detector - is the Senate decision in the trial of the Roman senator Piso, about which information was previously only available thanks to the important Roman historian Tacitus. This senator was convicted in AD 20 for the murder of Germanicus and further lèse majesté – in the eyes of the Romans one of the heaviest crimes that could be committed. Before the trial was complete, Piso committed suicide. But even death was not considered an adequate punishment for him. That is why it was decided to take measures that continued after Piso's death, measures that affected what was left of him - the memory. Today this is referred to as damnatio memoriae . For example, it was stipulated that the women were not allowed to mourn his death as usual. Also, all portraits and statues of Piso had to be removed.
The text of the Senate decision does not only provide information about the operation of damnatio memoriae, but also about the attitude of a provincial governor (in this case of the Roman province of Baetica) towards the central authorities in Rome. It was the responsibility of governors to publish important decisions taken in Rome in the provinces, and the fact that the Senate decision on Piso has been preserved in several copies in Spain thus says something about the loyalty of the governor of Baetica to Rome. .
Another inscription explains how the Flavian emperors were able to finance their great building project now known as the Colosseum. On the basis of the holes left in the stone into which the bronze letters were attached, the German historian Geza Alföldy was able to reconstruct the original inscription in 1995. It mentions that Emperor Titus (Vespasian's son) had the new amphitheater built ex manubis, or from the spoils that the Romans dragged in when they crushed the Jewish revolt in AD 70. The inscription originally called Vespasian, but because he had died before the construction project was completed, the text was adapted to Titus.
Papyri
Two groups of texts have survived on papyrus, the paper from Antiquity. The first consists of texts of a literary character, intended for a large audience. Our knowledge of classical literature is sometimes based purely on texts that have been handed down on papyrus. A good example of this is the reflection on the democratic polity of the Athenians attributed to Aristotle, known as the Athenaion politeia. Another example is the papyrus with hitherto unknown poems by the Greek poet Sappho, published in 2004.
Documentary papyri, the second group, recorded all kinds of things and mainly had a private and direct use character. Important discoveries of the past century in this field are the texts published as P. London. VI 1912 and P. Guess. 40. The first contains a letter from Emperor Claudius (41-54) to the Alexandrians. Emperors wrote to cities in response to letters from those cities; between the lines it is possible to reconstruct the contents of an earlier letter from the Alexandrians to Claudius and we obtain additional information about the organization of the administration of the Roman Empire. For example, the way in which imperial letters to the population (of a city) were published; elements of the imperial cult; the political tensions between the Greeks and Jews in Alexandria at the time, and the way in which the Roman government tried to mediate.
The other text contains an imperial edict by Caracalla (211-217), announcing that all free inhabitants of the Roman Empire will be granted Roman citizenship. Also sensational was the identification in 2000 of a signature of an official document as the signature of Egypt's famous Queen Cleopatra. Documentary papyri also provide new knowledge for more everyday practices. For example, in 2006 a monograph on Greek shorthand made use of the discovery of a papyrus containing an extensive Greek word list in the library of Montserrat.
So unknown sources are still emerging. In addition, modern techniques enable a new analysis of known sources. The computer is of crucial importance here. Thanks to various online databases (see below), locating and consulting coins, inscriptions and papyri is simplified. There are also experiments with preserving and reading (charred) papyri using laser techniques and scans. For example, not only papyri that are too fragile to be rolled out can be read, but also palimpsests. Also the research into the colors of antique statues, about which History Magazine reported in January 2006, has entered new waters thanks to technological developments.
The main lines of the history of Antiquity may be known, but there is certainly still gain to be gained from the sources that have not yet been discovered or researched. Each new source is like a puzzle piece that can be fitted into the large frame. That is precisely why documentary sources play an important role and it is exciting to continue searching for pieces that make the puzzle more complete. As long as new sources are found, there is plenty to discover.