Raja Rammohun Roy and his Brahmo Samaj
Raja Ram Mohan Roy, the originator of religious and social movements in India, was born in AD 1774 in a Brahmin family in Radhanagar village of Bengal. He was of revolutionary ideas from the very beginning. At the age of 17, he got a book published in which he strongly opposed idol-worship. His traditional Brahmin family got angry and threw him out of the house.
He started wandering here and there and during this time he studied Sanskrit, Persian, Bengali, Arabic and English languages and became a clerk in the collectorate of Rangpur under the East India Company. On the strength of his talent, he soon reached the high post of Dewangiri of the district. In the meantime, he studied Christianity deeply by learning Latin, Greek and Hebrew languages. He had already studied Hindu-religious-shastras, Vedas, Upanishads and Vedanta etc.
Responding to the Objections of Christianity
Raja Rammohun Roy was an admirer of the goodness of Christianity but he rejected the divinity of Jesus in the same way as he rejected Hindu incarnation. In AD 1813, when Christian missionaries started attacking Hinduism, Raja Ram Mohan Roy started answering those objections.
In AD 1814, at the age of 40, he resigned from his post and moved to Calcutta. In AD 1820 he published the book Precepts of Jesus, in which he attempted to separate the moral and philosophical message of the New Testament from its miraculous stories.
Establishment of Brahmo Samaj
On 20 August 1828, Raja Rammohun Roy founded the Brahmo Samaj based on the principle of pure monotheism. Brahmo Samaj was the first religious and social movement of the 19th century and Raja Rammohun Roy was the first Indian who tried to remove the evils of Indian religion and society.
Partition of Brahmo Samaj
After the death of Raja Rammohun Roy in AD 1833, Devendranath Tagore and Keshav Chandra Sen carried forward the Brahmo Samaj. Keshav Chandra Sen wanted to run the Brahmo Samaj on the principles of Christianity, but Debendranath Tagore did not agree with it. So the Brahmo Samaj was divided into two parts-
(1.) Devendranath's Adi Brahmo Samaj
(2.) Indian Brahmo Samaj of Keshav Chandra Sen.
Keshavchandra toured the country for the promotion of his society. This resulted in the establishment of the Prarthana Samaj in Bombay and the Veda Samaj in Madras. In AD 1881, differences arose again in the Indian Brahmo Samaj. The opponents of Keshav Chandra Sen established the ordinary Brahmo Samaj. Keshav Chandra Sen founded the Nav Vidhan Samaj, in which many things were also taken from Hindu, Christian, Buddhist and Muslim religious texts. Although the Brahmo Samaj split into various branches, its original goal was to reform the Hindu society and religion.
Main principles of Brahmo Samaj
Raja Rammohun Roy did not create any new sect in the form of Brahmo Samaj, but created a common background from the elements of higher teachings of Hinduism. The Brahmo Samaj was Indian in origin and its basis was the monism of the Upanishads. The Vedas were recited in the weekly meetings of the Brahmo Samaj and the Bengali translation of the Upanishads was read.
Religious Reforms of Brahmo-Samaj: The Brahmo Samaj, taking the Vedas and Upanishads as the basis, told that God is one, there is truth in all religions, idol-worship and rituals are meaningless and social evils have no relation with religion. First of all, Brahmo Samaj gave Indian society the idea of explaining religion on the basis of logic.
While explaining the religion, he strongly attacked the rituals of Christianity and the claim of the divine incarnation of Jesus Christ and argued with the Christian missionaries. Due to this the Hindus who were converting to Christianity were saved from converting. Raja Rammohan Roy studied all the religions like Hinduism, Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, etc. and came to the conclusion that there is truth in all religions, but rituals have been included in all religions which need to be removed.
He mainly tried to reform Hinduism. He drew the attention of the people to the formless, formless Brahman which is represented in the Vedanta. Brahmo Samaj was tolerant towards all religions. When Raja Rammohun Roy got the building constructed for the Brahmo Samaj, it was clarified in the document of his trust that "All people without any discrimination, can use this building for the worship of the eternal being . No idol will be installed in it, no sacrifice will be done in it, no religion will be condemned. In this only such teachings will be given which will increase unity and harmony among all religions.'
It is alleged that the Brahmo Samaj was influenced by Christianity and civilization, but this is not true. The original sources of his inspiration were ancient Indian religious texts. Brahmo Samaj also paved the way for reforms in other religions of India.
Social Reform: Raja Rammohun Roy was a social reformer of a high order. At that time many evils were prevalent in the Hindu society. Raja Rammohun Roy decided to drive them away. Seeing his widowed sister-in-law being sati, he started a movement against this inhuman practice. As a result, Lord William Bentinck declared the practice of Sati illegal in AD 1829.
Brahmo Samaj opposed the evils of child marriage, polygamy, caste system, untouchability, intoxication etc. and supported female education, inter-caste marriage, widow-marriage etc. At that time in the Indian Hindu society, evil practices like selling of bride and groom and girl-slaughter were prevalent.
Brahmo Samaj launched a strong movement against these evils. Propounding the principle of equality, he prevented millions of Hindus from becoming Christians. In AD 1822 and AD 1830, Raja Rammohun Roy threw light on the social, legal and property rights of women through two publications. In his opinion, both men and women are equal.
Thus the contribution of Brahmo Samaj in the field of social reform is unique. There was no such evil in Hindu society, which Brahmo Samaj had not attacked. The evils which have been opposed by all the enlightened Indians in modern times and which even today the educated class of India sees with hatred, those evils were first attacked by the Brahmo Samaj. The Brahmo Samaj had first fought against the social evils which have been declared unconstitutional in the Constitution of independent India.
Literary Corrections: The Brahmo Samaj also did remarkable work in the literary field. Assemblies like Tattva Bodhini Sabha of Devendranath, Sangat Sabha of Keshavchandra Sen and Indian Social Reforms proved helpful in propagating the ideas of Brahmo Samaj. Raja Rammohun Roy enriched Indian literature by writing books in Bengali, Urdu, Persian, Arabic, Sanskrit and English languages.
He translated many religious texts into different languages which is a permanent contribution to the Indian literary world. The writings and statements of Raja Rammohun Roy and Keshav Chandra Sen enriched Indian literature. Articles like Raja Rammohun Roy's Appeal to the Christian Public and The Destiny of Human Life created a new awakening among Indians.
Raja Rammohun Roy brought out the first Bengali weekly paper called Samvad Kaumudi. He also published the Persian newspaper Miratul. Keshavchandra Sen published papers by Indian Brahmo Samaj like Tattva Kaumudi, Brahma Public Opinion, Sanjeevani etc. These journals made a huge contribution to the development of literature.
Academic Improvement: Raja Rammohun Roy supported the English language and western education. He believed that knowledge of English is necessary for progress in the modern era. He wanted that there should be a system of Western education and education of all branches of knowledge in India. For this Brahmo Samaj opened schools and colleges at different places. Raja Rammohun Roy himself established Vedanta College, English School and Hindu College in Calcutta.
The Indian Brahmo Samaj of Keshav Chandra Sen laid the foundation of the Brahmo Balika School and the City College of Calcutta. These educational institutions made a great contribution in the modernization and social reform of India. The Hindu College acted as a precursor to the Indian intellectual awakening and gave birth to the Young Bengal Movement.
National Reform: Brahmo Samaj contributed immensely in the formation of the feeling of nationalism. He gave knowledge of ancient Indian pride, civilization and culture, which inculcated the feeling of nationalism among Indians. Raja Rammohun Roy advocated reforms in Hindu laws. Emphasized on the social and property rights of women.
Demanded a reduction in land-tax and sent an application to England against the oppressive agricultural laws. Send applications to the Supreme Court and the King-in-Council against the restrictions on newspapers. Raja Rammohun Roy first raised the slogan of freedom of thought. He demanded more number of Indians to be recruited in government and service.
He made suggestions to the Select Committee of the House of Commons of England for reforms in Indian governance. He supported jury system in justice and demanded separation of judiciary from administration. He also demanded the preparation of a collection of civil and criminal laws and insisted on replacing Persian with English as the language of the courts.
He demanded to fix the revenue to be taken from the farmers. As a result of his movement, the restrictions on newspapers were removed in AD 1835. Raja Rammohun Roy made a great contribution in the political renaissance of India.
The harbingers of the new era
Raja Rammohun Roy was a supporter of internationalism. He presented a suggestion to settle international disputes peacefully, in which there was a plan to form an International Congress by taking one member each from the parliaments of the respective countries. Thus Raja Rammohun Roy was a strong supporter of both nationalism and internationalism.
Adam has written- 'The passion for freedom was the strongest passion of his conscience and this strong feeling used to come out in all his religious, social, political etc.' That is why he has been called the forerunner of the new era.
Young Bengal Movement
The establishment of the Hindu College in Calcutta in January 1817 was an important event in the history of India's religious and social reform movement. The history of public life and public awakening begins from the Hindu College itself. Prior to this, religion had a deep influence on the life of Bengal and Indians had little or no contact with politics.
In AD 1826, Henry Louis Vivian Derrigio was appointed as a teacher in this college. He was a free thinker and was influenced by the liberal ideology of the 19th century. He made Hindu College a center of mass awakening. He wanted to create such an environment which would generate interest in politics among Indians.
He introduced the meritorious students of the college to the thought currents of the political thinkers of Europe. Many students like Amrutlal Mitra, Krishnamohan Banerjee, Rasikkrishna Mallick, Dakshirananjan Mukherjee, Ram Gopal Ghosh etc. were in close contact with him. Religion, politics, ethics and Indian history were discussed in the seminars of Derrigio and his brilliant students.
The students of Derrigio formed a new conscious class in Bengal called Young Bengal. The members of Young Bengal were bitter critics of superstitions and Indian social evils and were strongly in favor of reforms. He started a movement in Bengal called the Young Bengal Movement.
Influenced by Derrigio's ideas, members of Young Bengal established the Academic Association under the chairmanship of Derrigio in AD 1828. Various topics were discussed and ideas were exchanged in the meetings organized under the auspices of this association. Students of Hindu College as well as educated and aware people of Calcutta participated in such seminars.
Derrigio and his association shook the dormant Indians. The students developed a sense of self-confidence and began to criticize the ancient stereotypes. Antiquarian Indians raised their voice against this association. Many parents took their boys out of Hindu College. On this the college's managing committee banned this association.
The managing committee decided to expel Derrijo from the college. Derrigio himself resigned in March 1831. He died a few days later. देरीजियो की मृत्यु के बाद भी उसके शिष्य उसके बताए हुए मार्ग पर चलते रहे और बंगाल में जनजागरण का कार्य करते रहे।
बंगाल में सार्वजनिक संगठनों की स्थापना का प्रारम्भ देरीजियो के युवा बंगाल तथा एकेडेमिक एसोसिएशन से होता है। उसने बंगाल में और अन्ततः सम्पूर्ण भारत में जनजागरण की नींव रखी। उसने वस्तुओं को तर्क के आधार पर परखने एवं अन्धविश्वासों तथा पुरानी मान्यताओं पर प्रहार करने की परम्परा आरम्भ की।
केशवचन्द्र सेन और भारतीय ब्रह्मसमाज
केशवचन्द्र सेन ई.1856 में ब्रह्मसमाज के सदस्य बने। उन्होंने अपने भाषणों तथा लेखों के माध्यम से नवयुवकों को ब्रह्मसमाज की ओर आकर्षित किया। उन्होंने संत सभा की स्थापना की। केशवचन्द्र सेन पाश्चात्य विचारों तथा ईसाई धर्म से अधिक प्रभावित थे और ब्रह्मसमाज को ईसाई धर्म के सिद्धान्तों के अनुसार चलाना चाहते थे।
इस कारण उनका देवेन्द्रनाथ टैगोर से मतभेद हो गया और उन्होंने ई.1866 में भारतीय ब्रह्मसमाज की स्थापना की। ईसाई धर्म से प्रभावित होने के कारण भारतीय ब्रह्मसमाज, ईसा मसीह को पूज्य मानने लगा। इस संस्था के अनुयाइयों में बाइबिल तथा ईसाई पुराणों का अध्ययन होता था। केशवचन्द्र सेन ने भारतीय ब्रह्मसमाज के प्रार्थना संग्रह में हिन्दू, बौद्ध, यहूदी, ईसाई, मुस्लिम और चीनी आदि विविध धर्मों की प्रार्थनाएं तथा वैष्णव कीर्तन सम्मिलित किये।
केशवचन्द्र सेन ने नवयुवकों में सामाजिक सुधार की उग्र भावना जागृत की। उन्होंने स्त्री-शिक्षा और विधवा-विवाह का प्रबल समर्थन किया तथा बाल-विवाह, बहु-विवाह और पर्दा-प्रथा का विरोध किया। उन्होंने अन्तर्जातीय-विवाह का भी समर्थन किया। इसके परिणामस्वरूप ई.1872 में ब्रह्म मेरिजेज एक्ट पारित हुआ जिसके अनुसार अन्तर्जातीय-विवाह एवं विधवा-विवाह हो सकते थे तथा बाल-विवाह एवं बहु-विवाह का निषेध कर दिया गया।
ई.1870 में केशवचन्द्र सेन ने इण्डियन रिफार्म एसोसिएशन की स्थापना की जिसमें स्त्रियों की स्थिति में सुधार, मजदूर वर्ग की शिक्षा, सस्ते साहित्य का निर्माण, नशाबन्दी आदि उद्देश्य रखे गये। इन उद्देश्यों की पूर्ति के लिए उन्होंने साप्ताहिक समाचार पत्र सुलभ समाचार आरम्भ किया। स्त्रियों को उनके घर पर शिक्षा देने के लिए एक समुदाय बनाया और एक समुदाय सस्ती एवं उपयोगी पुस्तकों के प्रकाशन के लिए स्थापित किया।
केशवचन्द्र सेन के नेतृत्व में भारतीय ब्रह्मसमाज का तीव्र गति से उत्कर्ष हुआ। नवयुवकों ने बंगाल के गांव-गांव में जाकर भारतीय ब्रह्मसमाज के सिद्धांतों का प्रचार किया तथा अनेक नवयुवक बंगाल से बाहर भी गये। ई.1866 में छपे एक लेख से ज्ञात होता है कि भारतीय ब्रह्मसमाज की बंगाल में 50, उत्तर प्रदेश में 2, पंजाब तथा मद्रास में 1-1 शाखा स्थापित हुई। भारतीय ब्रह्मसमाज के सिद्धांतों के प्रचार के लिए विभिन्न भाषाओं में 37 पत्रिकाएं प्रकाशित की जाती थीं।
ई.1878 में कूचबिहार के अवयस्क राजकुमार और केशवचन्द्र सेन की अवयस्क पुत्री का विवाह हुआ। इससे केशवचन्द्र सेन की प्रतिष्ठा को गहरा आघात लगा। ब्रह्म मेरिजेज एक्ट पारित करवाने में केशवचन्द्र सेन सबसे अधिक सक्रिय थे और अब उन्होंने स्वयं उस कानून का उल्लंघन किया। इसलिये केशवचन्द्र सेन के विरुद्ध आवाज उठी और भारतीय ब्रह्मसमाज के दो टुकड़े हो गये। केशवचन्द्र सेन के विरोधियों ने साधारण ब्रह्मसमाज स्थापित किया। केशवचन्द्र सेन के नेतृत्व में नव विधान सभा गठित की गई।
साधारण ब्रह्मसमाज
सुरेन्द्रनाथ बनर्जी तथा शिवनाथ शास्त्री जैसे महान् समाज सुधारकों ने केशवचंद्र सेन से नाराज होकर साधारण ब्रह्मसमाज की स्थापना की। इसने कलकत्ता में एक स्कूल स्थापित किया, जो बाद में सिटी कॉलेज ऑफ कलकत्ता कहलाया। इस संस्था ने पुस्तकालय तथा छापाखाने की स्थापना की तथा समाचार पत्र-पत्रिकाओं का प्रकाशन किया। बंगला में ‘तत्व कौमुदी’ और अँग्रेजी में ‘ब्रह्म पब्लिक ओपिनियन’ नामक दो समाचार पत्र चलाये।
ई.1884 में साप्ताहिक पत्रिका संजीवनी आरम्भ की गई। ई.1888 में ब्रह्म बालिका स्कूल खोला गया। इस प्रकार साधारण ब्रह्मसमाज ने भी धर्म और समाज सुधार आन्दोलन में महत्त्वपूर्ण कार्य किया। बाद के समय में ब्रह्मसमाज की सबसे अधिक लोकप्रिय शाखा यही थी।
डॉ. आत्माराम पाण्डुरंग और प्रार्थना समाज
ई.1819 में महाराष्ट्र में प्रार्थना सभा की स्थापना की गई। इसका प्रभाव सीमित था और यह शीघ्र ही छिन्न-भिन्न हो गई। ई.1867 में डॉ. आत्माराम पाण्डुरंग ने प्रार्थना समाज की स्थापना की। वे केशवचंद्र सेन से बहुत प्रभावित थे। इस कारण ब्रह्मसमाज तथा प्रार्थना समाज की बहुत सी बातें एक जैसी थीं।
प्रार्थना समाज का उद्देश्य भी समाज सुधार करना था। धार्मिक क्षेत्र में यह एकेश्वरवाद तथा ईश्वर के निराकार रूप के सिद्धांत को मानते थे। प्रार्थना समाज में, मूर्ति-पूजा के त्याग की शर्त नहीं थी। सामाजिक क्षेत्र में इस संस्था के मुख्य उद्देश्य इस प्रकार थे-
(1.) विधवा-विवाह को बढ़ावा देना।
(2.) जाति-प्रथा को अस्वीकार करना।
(3.) स्त्री-शिक्षा को प्रोत्साहन देना।
(4.) बाल-विवाह का बहिष्कार करना।
(5.) विवेकपूर्ण उपासना करना।
(6.) अन्य सामाजिक सुधार करना।
केशवचन्द्र सेन, नवीनचन्द्र राय, पी. सी. मजूमदार और बाबू महेन्द्रनाथ बोस जैसे प्रसिद्ध ब्रह्म समाजियों के बम्बई आगमन से प्रार्थना समाज को प्रोत्साहन मिला। प्रार्थना समाज के अनुयायियों ने अपना ध्यान अन्तर्जातीय विवाह, विधवा-विवाह और महिलाओं एवं हरिजनों की दशा सुधारने पर केन्द्रित किया।
उन्होंने अनाथाश्रम, रात्रि पाठशालाएं, विधवाश्रम, अछूतोद्धार जैसी अनेक उपयोगी संस्थाएं स्थापित कीं। प्रार्थना समाज ने हिन्दू-धर्म से अलग होकर कोई नवीन सम्प्रदाय स्थापित करने का प्रयास नहीं किया और न इसने ईसाई धर्म का समर्थन किया। इसने अपने सिद्धान्त भागवत् सम्प्रदाय से सम्बन्धित रखे।
हिन्दू कट्टरता पर करारी चोट
प्रार्थना समाज के कुछ सदस्यों ने हिन्दू-कट्टरता पर करारी चोट की। महाराष्ट्र के समाज सुधारक गोपाल हरिदेशमुख (लोकहितवादी) ने लिखा है- ‘धर्म यदि सुधार की अनुमति नहीं देता तो उसे बदल देना चाहिये। क्योंकि धर्म को मनुष्य ने बनाया है और यह आवश्यक नहीं है कि बहुत पहले लिखे गये धर्म ग्रंथ आज भी प्रासंगिक हों।’
पुरोहितों तथा ब्राह्मणों पर प्रहार करते हुए उन्होंने लिखा- ‘पुरोहित बहुत ही अपवित्र हैं क्योंकि कुछ बातों को बिना उनका अर्थ समझे दुहराते रहते हैं……. पण्डित तो पुरोहितों से भी बुरे हैं क्योंकि वे और भी अज्ञानी हैं तथा अहंकारी भी हैं …….. ब्राह्मण कौन हैं और किन अर्थों में वे हमसे भिन्न हैं ? क्या उनके बीस हाथ हैं और क्या हममें कोई कमी है ? अब जब ऐसे सवाल पूछे जायें तो ब्राह्मणों को अपनी मूर्खतापूर्ण धारणाएं त्याग देनी चाहिये, उन्हें यह मान लेना चाहिये कि समस्त मनुष्य बराबर हैं तथा हर व्यक्ति को ज्ञान प्राप्त करने का अधिकार है।’
जस्टिस महादेव गोविन्द रानाडे का योगदान
जस्टिस महादेव गोविन्द रानाडे (ई.1842-1901) ने इस संस्था के माध्यम से बहुत काम किया। उन्होंने अपना सम्पूर्ण जीवन प्रार्थना समाज के उद्देश्यों को आगे बढ़ाने में लगाया। वे समाज सुधार के साथ राष्ट्रीय प्रगति के प्रबल पक्षधर थे। उन्होंने ई.1884 में दकन एजूकेशन सोसायटी तथा विधवा-विवाह संघ की स्थापना की।
उन्होंने भारतीय सुधारों को नवीन दिशा दी। प्रार्थना समाज धार्मिक गतिविधियों की अपेक्षा सामाजिक क्षेत्र में अधिक कार्यशील रहा और पश्चिमी भारत में समाज सुधार सम्बन्धी विभिन्न कार्यकलापों का केन्द्र रहा। प्रार्थना समाज ने महाराष्ट्र में समाज सुधार के लिए वही कार्य किया, जो ब्रह्मसमाज ने बंगाल में किया था।