1. Land and Agriculture: The primary source of income for most people was agriculture. Feudal society was centered around the ownership of land, and those who owned land could collect rent from peasants who worked it. Landowners could also sell agricultural surpluses, such as grains and livestock, in local markets.
2. Feudal Dues: Feudal lords collected various dues from their peasants. These dues could include:
- Labor Services: Peasants would work on the lord's land for a certain number of days each year as part of their feudal obligations.
- Rents: Peasants paid rent to the lord for the use of land. Rent could be in the form of crops, livestock, or money.
- Taxes: Lords imposed taxes on peasants, such as a percentage of their harvest or a fee for using the lord's mill.
3. Trade and Commerce: Merchants played an essential role in trade during the Middle Ages, transporting goods between different regions. They would buy goods from producers (artisans, farmers) and sell them in local markets or long-distance trade networks.
4. Craftsmanship and Artisans: Skilled craftsmen and artisans earned income by producing goods such as textiles, furniture, pottery, weapons, and other manufactured items. They could sell these goods directly to customers or through guilds or merchant associations.
5. Religious Institutions: The Church was a significant landowner during the Middle Ages, and it derived income from tithes (a portion of agricultural produce) and other donations from the faithful. Monastic communities also engaged in economic activities, such as farming and manuscript production.
6. Taxes and Tolls: Monarchs and local governments collected taxes from various sources, including land, trade, and inheritances. Tolls were also imposed on the use of bridges, roads, and other public infrastructure.
7. Military Service: Knights and other military personnel received compensation for their services during wars or conflicts, often through grants of land or privileges.
8. Guilds: Craft guilds regulated various trades and occupations and could collect fees from their members.
It's worth noting that economic activities during the Middle Ages were heavily influenced by the feudal system, with the majority of the population (peasants) tied to the land and dependent on their lords for economic survival.