A thousand years before the pyramids, the great necropolises of Hierakonpolis and Abydos welcome the first pharaohs for their journey to the afterlife. We can already detect the beginnings of rites and beliefs that will last more than 4,000 years.
Funeral wake of an official treasurer. Limestone with remains of polychromy from the necropolis of Abydos.
This article is from the Special Issue of Sciences et Avenir n°197 dated April-May 2019
In addition to a chapel, the tomb houses around twenty burials. They contain the remains of humans - adults, including a dwarf - and especially of animals. A veritable menagerie:hunting dogs, aurochs, crocodiles, antelopes, hippopotamuses, baboons, elephants… Species which, for some, had been driven out of the region by the intense desertification that began well before the 5th millennium. Countless objects were also found:shards of pottery, ivory containers, clay or flint figurines, fragments of linen fabric sometimes covering bones, etc. Remains of walls suggest that this funerary complex could have been closed. "It is quite possible that this is the burial place of the first king of Egypt, speculates Belgian Egyptologist Stan Hendrickx, a specialist in predynastic iconography. Such profusion suggests that this character exerted his influence far beyond the region. The HK6 necropolis where he was buried seems to have been maintained for a millennium:this shows its importance."
Predynastic necropolises like this one dot the entire Nile Valley, especially the west bank. One of the largest was discovered in 1894 by French archaeologist Émile Amélineau. This is the Oum el-Qaab cemetery in Abydos, a vast necropolis which, too, has been used for at least a millennium. It was probably that of the city of This (or Thinis), which would have succeeded Hierakonpolis as the center of power before being dethroned in turn by Memphis, capital of the pharaohs after the unification of the kingdom. Nothing else remains of This, but its existence is affirmed in later texts, such as the History of Egypt written by Manetho during the reign of Ptolemy II, in the 3rd century BC. AD
"The necropolises are often the only way to inform us about the predynastic period, because the Nile has moved a lot, dug and sedimented, so many habitation sites have been washed away or buried", explains Béatrix Midant-Reynes, Emeritus Research Director at the University of Toulouse Jean-Jaurès. The cemeteries were most often set up on the borders of the alluvial plain, sheltered from the vagaries of the river. A sign of the attention paid by the Egyptians to their deceased. "We see the development of increasingly complex funerary installations, resumes the archaeologist. And we see that the differences in wealth are amplified in the graves, accompanying the growing hierarchy of society. Finally, archeology gives more to see on the economy and the social organization of an era than on its religious beliefs:of these, we don't know much!"
An alignment of megaliths erected not far from a lake that has now disappeared
The remains of human occupation prior to the 6th millennium are rare in Egypt. Among the exceptions, the Fayoum site, one hundred kilometers south of Cairo. Occupied since the 8th millennium, this oasis bears witness to the appearance of livestock farming… only two thousand years later. A confirmation that the Neolithic - the transition from food predation to production - appeared later in Egypt than in the Levant or Mesopotamia. Geography undoubtedly explains this discrepancy:the populations of fishermen-hunters-gatherers settled in winter near the Nile had to migrate, as summer approached, towards the rocky plateaus which stand on either side of the Nile. another from the river. At Nabta Playa, in Upper Egypt, an alignment of megaliths erected around 5000-4700 BC was discovered. J.-C., not far from a lake - now disappeared - which filled in the rainy season. Astronomical observatory? Place of worship ? Nothing allows you to decide. Not far from there, tombs have been unearthed containing the remains of cattle - evidence of breeding and possible sacrifices - but no human burials. The individuals were probably buried in the seasonal camps.
With sedentarization, the graves are much more numerous. It is at this moment that the cemeteries and the funerary world appear, prefiguring the growing role of the world of the dead in Egyptian culture. At Badari, for example, on the east bank of the Nile 340 kilometers south of Cairo, a society emerged at the end of the 6th millennium. It testifies to practices used throughout the predynastic period:the body of the deceased is folded in on itself in an almost fetal position. "We evoke the symbolism of the return to the maternal womb , notes Béatrix Midant-Reynes. But we don't know! What is certain is that we find this position in all the prehistoric cultures of the globe, and that it lasts more or less long depending on the region. It was not until the Old Kingdom that the Egyptians began to place the dead on their backs."
With sedentarization, there are many more graves
The disposition of the body seems to obey, with a few exceptions, a rule:head to the north or to the south, body aligned in the axis of the Nile, with, in most cases, the face turned towards the west. "The dead look in the direction of the afterlife , confirms Günter Dreyer, of the German Institute of Archeology in Cairo. To access the new life, you first had to go through the realm of the dead. In Abydos, some burials even have an exit door to the west." The dead is sometimes accompanied by everyday objects. "In Badari, for example, burials contain copper or ivory objects which suggest that they hosted craftsmen buried in their usual environment, describes Béatrix Midant-Reynes. In others, there is nothing. Some tombs, on the other hand, contain jewels, knives with ornate handles, pearl necklaces, make-up palettes... testifying to a real ostentation, or to the economic power of the deceased. The accumulation of objects demonstrated that he was able to afford quality products and to feed the craftsmen who transformed imported raw materials for his benefit". for example lapis lazuli from Afghanistan or copper mined in the Sinai. "These tombs get bigger and more beautiful while their number gets smaller over time , continues Béatrix Midant-Reynes. An important leap in this process is accomplished with tomb U-j of the necropolis of Abydos:an underground palace in miniature, with a main burial chamber surrounded by eleven annex chambers. Probably the tomb of a king."
At the wadi brewery. Hierakonpolis, on the bank of the wadi opposite that of the HK6 cemetery, a unique site was discovered in the early 2000s by the team of Egyptologist Renée Friedman. "It is near the cemetery, and therefore several kilometers from the city, in the desert , explains Stan Hendrickx. These are remnants of what you might call a brewery." Archaeologists have named it "the brewery of the wadi". "Beer was made there in large quantities - which meant carrying a lot of water in the desert. There were also feasts for dozens - even hundreds! - of people, with fish chosen for their large size, and a much higher proportion of beef than what is found near dwellings."
Among the unearthed remains:countless containers used to prepare beer and cook food, but also clay tools such as fire bars, intended to hold the cooking jars above the hearths dug in the ground. . In some places, it bears the traces of strong and long exposure to heat. Was this place used to honor a deceased after his funeral? "No doubt , continues the Belgian Egyptologist. But we found so many hearths there that we think it must have been used on multiple occasions." Hierakonpolis may still hold surprises:"In twenty years, less than half of the site has been excavated!"
The necropolis of Oum el-Qaab in Abydos was discovered at the end of the 19
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century. Since then, several excavation campaigns have been carried out there. Here, shards of pottery are carefully examined in order to reconstruct jars. Credits:Aline Kiner
Dated around 3300 BC. AD, it was discovered at Oum el-Qaab in 1988 by the team of Günter Dreyer, who had resumed excavations of the site a few years earlier. More than six hundred graves have been discovered there, including about forty intact. The others were ransacked, especially the richest. "It is quite possible that this depredation occurred just after the burial, points out Günter Dreyer. One can imagine, for example, that they are the work of funeral personnel." Partially plundered, the U-j tomb is in the part of the necropolis reserved for the elite, closest to the wadi and the sunset. Obviously, the deceased was a rich and powerful man. One bedroom contained cedar chests that probably contained valuables (clothes, jewelry, etc.) stolen later. Two rooms - possibly three - were devoted to the storage of resinated wine imported from Palestine. Archaeologists estimate that the dead would have taken with him 4,500 liters of wine! Mentions made in ink on certain jars indicate a provenance. More than three hundred bone tablets have also been found which mention the quantities, sometimes the quality of the product, and often its origin - for example the towns of Bubastis and Bouto, several hundred kilometers further north. Some labels bear phonetic inscriptions that suggest that there, in the heart of predynastic Egypt, writing was invented.
In the tomb of King Aha, remains of lions bred in captivity
This profusion of clues found, despite the looting, in tomb U-j indicates that its host probably controlled a real administration, without it being possible to determine its geographical extent. "Very numerous inscriptions in ink mention the domain of a certain Scorpion, in Abydos, and we can think that they relate to him , says Günter Dreyer. We think he is a king." King Scorpion, of Dynasty 0, would have been, according to the German archaeologist, one of the first to begin the unification of the kingdom, by conquering the territories of Lower Egypt, in the north, and Nubia, in the south. After having constituted the last resting place of an entire population, the immense cemetery of Oum el-Qaab therefore seems to have become the prerogative of sovereigns.
Centuries later, around 3000 BC, while power was established further north, in Memphis, the kings of the 1st and 2nd dynasties would continue to be buried in Abydos. "To stay close to their ancestors" , suggests Günter Dreyer. The site will even experience a resurgence of interest with the development of the myth of Osiris, god of the beyond, from the 2nd millennium. King Djer's tomb in Abydos will be considered his own and an object of pilgrimage. Whatever the luxury of the funerary furniture, archaeologists differ on its meaning. While Béatrix Midant-Reynes sees it as an outward sign of wealth, Günter Dreyer considers that the abundance of goods was a way for the deceased to meet their needs. "We took what we needed for the afterlife:a leg of sheep, a bread pan... This means that for the Egyptians, there was life after death."
Everything suggests that the predynastic period already bears the seeds of the beliefs and rites that will flourish
At Abydos, the tomb of Aha, the first ruler of the 1st dynasty, has the remains of lions that appear to have lived in captivity. "Probably so the king can hunt in the afterlife" , justifies Günter Dreyer. "They are not adults, reminds Stan Hendrickx. Now, what prestige would there be in hunting young people? We must rather think about their symbolism . In the 'battlefield palette' exhibited in the British Museum, for example, the king is depicted as a lion."
Location of the necropolises, disposition of the bodies, funerary furnishings… Everything suggests that the predynastic period already bears the seeds of the beliefs and rites that will flourish during the golden age of Egyptian civilization. "Immortality will be expressed later in the texts, but one can imagine that it was already present in people's minds at that time , insists Béatrix Midant-Reynes. The Pyramid Texts undoubtedly gather words and prayers dating back to the 4th millennium. The rituals of the Pharaonic era are rooted in those of prehistory."
But these practices still elude us, and each clue is subject to multiple interpretations, recalls the archaeologist. "At Adaima, between Abydos and Hierakonpolis, some skulls have a green color on the eye sockets that could be eye shadow. Was it applied to prepare for the burial? It's possible. But we may as well see it as a prophylactic substance, used to ward off flies. Or a symbol, a way of representing the eye of Horus. Or both at the same time. It should not be forgotten that funeral rituals concern the living more than the dead."
And the world rises from the Nile... It is probably the yearly renewed vision of a drowned valley that led to the Egyptian myth of the creation of the world:in the beginning was a vast expanse of water. Then, as the waves receded, a first island of sand appeared, from which life emerged. "This idea is very convincing , says German archaeologist Günter Dreyer. Every year, at the beginning of the decline of the Nile, the Ancients saw small hillocks appear in the submerged plain. The mountains of creation. This is probably the reason why they quickly fashioned mounds overhanging the burial pits, at least as early as the 4th millennium. Besides, when you dig a grave, after filling it, there is always surplus material."
Realizing that the wind had quickly swept away these symbols of creation, the Egyptians then set out to protect them. "During the 1st Dynasty, they had a brilliant idea:to top the burial with an underground structure of wood, clay, or brick, as a buried 'backup' that would survive the scattering of mounds in surface. Subsequently, they reinforced these with stones, which gradually led to the pyramids" , continues the archaeologist. These pharaonic architectures would therefore be a symbol recalling the primordial mounds of creation, which sheltered and protected life. "From mounds to pyramids, these constructions probably offered the guarantee of a new life, in the afterlife" , concludes Günter Dreyer. A form of immortality granted to the deceased.