Similarly, no one could imagine that the Japan of the Tokugawa shogunate ,[1] an autocratic, feudal and isolationist regime, would in just over a century and a half become a clearly advanced, open country with military ambitions. The arrival en masse in the mid-nineteenth century of the European powers, with which they had timid contacts for centuries, further destabilized the governments of both countries, which had already been dragging serious internal problems for some time.
In this sense, we must highlight the First (1839-1842) and Second Opium War (1856-1860) and the First Sino-Japanese War[2] (1894-1895) for control of the Korean peninsula, which forced China to open up to international trade. These events discredited the authority and confidence of the Chinese government in the eyes of its subjects, which was clearly reflected in the Taiping[3] (1950-1866) and Boxer (1899-1901) insurrections. Similarly, the arrival of Commodore Perry in Edo in 1853 forced the shogun's government to open Japan to the world, a fact that ended up triggering the Meiji revolution or restoration in 1867. This revolution introduced a series of reforms that allowed a rapid development of Japan that generated profound changes in the social structure and generated a strong feeling of patriotic pride and militaristic nationalism (see Contemporary No. 18:The Russo-Japanese War).
Intellectuals and openness to the world
In the midst of this context, small groups of intellectuals began to emerge in both countries who dedicated themselves to documenting and writing about the changes that had taken place in recent decades. In particular, Liu E in China and Natsume Soseki in Japan stand out. Both welcomed the introduction of some elements of modernity such as the railway, electricity, new crops and western luxury goods, but instead they saw with concern the arrival of certain vices and diseases such as opium and tuberculosis or the black plague. The writings of both authors clearly reflect the sense of disorientation and frustration that the population felt upon seeing such changes. In the first novel written by Soseki, I am a cat , the protagonist describes with a great sense of humor the collapse of the old aristocracy and the emergence of new social relations as follows:
Similarly, Liu E recounts with some regret the crumbling of imperial authority and prestige, as he watched helplessly as government structures were unable, at all levels, to do in the face of natural disasters, internal rebellions and the growing influence of foreign powers both inside and outside the country. In this sense, there is a moment when Dr. Can, the protagonist of the book, laments about the future of China in the following way:
Dr. Can, a cultured man, sadly recalls that for much of the Ming and Qing dynasties, China was a highly centralized country, as the emperor and his government they exercised a strong authority throughout the Empire through taxes, legislating throughout the territory and being able to appoint and depose governors in all the provinces.
Both authors speak with a certain nostalgia for the past, since it must be taken into account that between the 17th and 18th centuries both countries had experienced important periods of economic, social and and politics . In the span of little more than 100 years, China doubled its territory through multiple conquests and tripled or almost quadrupled[6] its population thanks to agricultural improvements[7] and internal peace. In parallel, Japan consolidated a good part of its current territory in 1603, a fact that produced a period of more than 250 years of peace that caused its population to double[8]. On the contrary, in the mid-nineteenth century, both countries presented multiple social and political problems due to food shortages and multiple social tensions derived from the rising cost of living and the struggle for power between the old aristocracy[9] and the enriched artisans and farmers who did not want to continue maintaining the system without having a voice or a vote.
Both authors agree that the path towards modernization and opening up to the West are essential steps to be able to keep their countries independent, but at the same time they see with some concern as an excess of admiration towards the West makes them feel inferior and underestimate their own culture. In novels like Kokoro , The herbs along the way or The walker , Sōseki processes admiration for Western works and classics, while comparing them with Japanese culture and reflecting on its future. I, the protagonist of Kokoro , a young university student, feels deeply sorry, like Sensei, his spiritual teacher, not knowing how to face the future after the end of the Meiji era, since they find that the country has lost spiritual and social peace. Sensei shows his deep regret as follows:
Kenzo, the protagonist of The Herbs of the Path and alter ego of Sōseki himself, is an English teacher who has lived in England for a while,[11] and returns more convinced than ever that England cannot contribute much to Japanese culture since, apart from technology, it has nothing superior or really innovative to offer .
On the contrary, Dr. Can is a great connoisseur of the Chinese classics, and an admirer of Western technical knowledge, but knows almost nothing about their culture, as he is convinced that there is nothing that surpasses the Chinese cultural production. In fact, one of his greatest hobbies is reading the great Chinese classics, in old editions inherited from his ancestors, which he always takes on his trips and which he takes advantage of to read in his spare time. In the same way, he also finds it very interesting how he analyzes and denounces the great social evils, such as floods or opium addiction.[12]
Finally, it is worth mentioning that these two authors are essential to understand the social and cultural transformations of the last third of the 19th century and the first years of the 20th century both in China and Japan, since they manage to reflect, like few others, the sensations experienced by their protagonists. In the same way, I consider that they are very important novels and essays because they provide interesting data and analyzes on how the nineteenth-century population perceived political, military and social conflicts such as those explained in the article's introduction.
Notes
[1] The Tokugawa shogunate was a hereditary system of government that controlled Japan between 1603 and 1868. The main achievements of this government were to achieve internal peace by establishing an iron system of social control while keeping the population practically isolated from the rest of the world. The end of this whole political system is very well explained in Beasley, W.G. (2007). The Meiji Restoration . Satori editions.
[2] According to Hobsbawm (2012:290), the weakening of the central power in China after the Opium Wars allowed various Western powers to control large coastal areas of China, a fact that in turn further weakened the central power by depriving it of the main economic resources that sustained it. Even Japan, a country that traditionally shied away from confronting China, managed to wrest control of Taiwan and the Korean peninsula from it in the first Sino-Japanese war. Hobsbawm, E. (2012). The Age of Empire 1875-1914 . Barcelona:History Books.
[3] According to Gernet (2018:484), the incessant increase in opium imports, the shortage of silver, the payment of war reparations to the Western powers that won the First Opium War, they ruined millions of peasants and small artisans. Discontent with such a situation created the ideal breeding ground for a revolution like the one in Taiping to break out. Gernet, J. (2018). The Chinese world . Barcelona:History Books.
[4] In the Japan of the Tokugawa shogunate, unity and politics revolved around 3 essential axes:1) the figure of the emperor, 2) the authority of the Shogun and 3) the relationship they had with the daimyos and other vassals (samurai, lawyers, artisans, farmers, peasants...). With the Meiji revolution, the entire system of social conventions that revolved around the Shogun's family collapsed. Soseki, N. (2010). I'm a cat . Satori editions.
[5] E, Liu (2004). The travels of the good doctor Can . Chair Editions.
[6] According to Hobsbawm (2011:139), between the mid-18th century and the beginning of the 19th century, China went from a population of about 150 million inhabitants to almost 400. This fact , according to the aforementioned author, caused strong tensions and supply problems among the Chinese population that would progressively undermine the imperial authority. Hobsbawm, E. (2011) The Age of Capital 1848-1875 . Barcelona:History Books.
[7] Improvements in the river communications system, the irrigation system, greater specialization in agricultural techniques, better selection of seeds and the introduction of crops such as potatoes and corn allowed a spectacular demographic growth (Gernet2018:430-431).
[8] According to Parker (2012:811), during the Tokugawa period, more than 7,000 new towns were created in the 17th century alone, and the urban population increased from 750,000 to 4 millions. This fact demonstrates the strong demographic growth that the country experienced and how agricultural improvements allowed many more people to live in the cities, where in turn a small middle class was created and where the sciences and arts were refined. Parker, G. (2012). The cursed century. Climate, wars and catastrophes in the 17th century . Planet.
[9] As early as the 18th century, Wu Jingzi made an acid critique of society in the novel The Mandarins. History of the Forest of the Lettered . Above all, he criticizes the growing corruption of the imperial examination system, the corruption of the local and national aristocracy.
[10] The novel by Kokoro It was written shortly after the death of the emperor of the Meiji era, a fact that greatly affected the society of the time, since it clearly marked a change of era, since said emperor marked the modernization and opening of Japan for 43 years. Soseki, N. (2014). Kokoro . Satori editions.
[11] Already on the first page of the book Soseki comments on the traumatic experience of living outside the country and the need to get rid of this memory. Soseki, N. (2012). The herbs along the way . Satori editions.
[12] In some parts of the novel, Liu E laments the great popularity that opium dens have acquired among both poor and wealthy people and the serious consequences that has this habit for health. E, L. (2004). The travels of the good doctor Can . Chair Editions.
Bibliography
- Beasley, W.G.(2007). “The MEIJI Restoration ”. Spain:Satori editions.
- Hobsbawm, Eric. (2012) “The Age of Empire 1875-1914 ”. Barcelona:History Books.
- Gernet, Jacques. (2018) “The Chinese world ”. Barcelona:History Books.
- Sogun. Soseki, Natsume (2010). “I'm a cat ”. Spain:Satori editions.
- E, Liu (2004). “The travels of the good doctor Can ”. Spain:Catedra Editions.
- Gernet, Jacques. (2018) “The Chinese world ”. Barcelona:History Books.
- Parker, Geoffrey. (2012) “ The cursed century. Climate, wars and catastrophes in the 17th century ”. Spain:Editorial Planeta.
- Soseki, Natsume (2014). “Kokoro ”. Spain:Satori editions.
- Soseki, Natsume (2012). “The herbs along the way ”. Spain:Satori editions.