The Roman Empire is the period of ancient history during which the Roman state and the overseas provinces were under the sovereignty of a princeps (emperor). It begins when Octavian received the title of "Augustus" in 27 BC. AD and traditionally ends, for its western part, in 476 AD. At its height, the Roman Empire stretched from Brittany to the Arabian Peninsula, bringing together a multitude of ethnic groups, cultures and religions. The empire brought peace (the Pax Romana), stability and prosperity within its well-defended borders. But the growing tension exerted by the peoples living on its periphery will lead it inexorably to its downfall.
Civil War
In 44 BC. BC, the Roman Republic is in crisis:it has gone through several civil wars in recent decades (between Marius and Sylla in 88-87 and 82-81 BC, against Sertorius in Spain in 82 -72 BC, conspiracy of Catiline in 63-62 BC). The last of these, between Caesar and Pompey, did not end until 48 BC. AD with the defeat of the latter. Made dictator for 10 years in 46 BC. AD, then for life in February 44 BC. BC, Caesar is preparing to embark on a campaign against the Parthians, tough enemies of Rome installed on the edge of Roman territories in Asia Minor. His assassination on March 15, 44 BC. J.-C. will trigger a new civil war which will end up sealing the fate of the Republic and bringing the advent of the Roman Empire.
The day after the Ides of March, the Senate votes amnesty for Caesar's assassins, on the proposal of Marc Antony, the only remaining consul and friend of Caesar, who seeks reconciliation with the conspirators. Marc Antoine's search for conciliation does not last long. At Caesar's funeral, he galvanized the crowd with his speeches, reading Caesar's will (which bequeathed much of his property to the people of Rome) and pointing out the tears in the dead man's toga where the knives had struck. The mob attacks the houses of the conspirators, who leave Rome.
In October 43 BC. J.-C. during the interview of Bologna the caesarians Marc Antoine, Octave and lépide form a second triumvirate. it is the beginning of proscriptions, which target opponents and wealthy personalities. These measures designate individuals as enemies of the state, allowing any Roman citizen to attack them and confiscating their property for the benefit of the state. Cicero counts among the victims, 300 in total. A year later, the triumvirs go to war against the former conspirators Brutus and Cassius, who control the East. The latter are defeated at the Battle of Philippi. Following their victory, the triumvirs share the Roman world:Lepidus receives Africa, Octave the West, Marc Antoine the East. Italy is not allocated to any particular triumvir.
After several years of war, Sextus Pompey, son of Pompey defeated by Caesar and who had occupied Sicily since 44, was defeated by Octavian and his lieutenant, Agrippa, during the battle of Nauloque. Lépide, who had made the mistake of wanting to appropriate Octave's legions, was forcibly expelled from the triumvirate by the latter and forced him to retire to one of his properties. Octave then finds himself unopposed in the West. 33 BC AD marks the end of the triumvirate. Octave does not seek to renew it, formalizing his break with Marc Antoine and summons the Senate accusing Marc Antoine of granting titles and offering territories to his relatives and Cleopatra. Octave, who has managed to obtain Marc Antoine's will, publicly reveals that the latter has planned to inherit the children he had with Cleopatra from Roman territories and to be buried in Alexandria. Marc Antoine sees his powers revoked by the Senate, which declares war against Egypt.
At the battle of Actium on September 2, 31 BC. BC, Marc Antoine and Cleopatre are beaten and flee, pursued by Octave who invades Egypt. Cleopatra tries to negotiate with Octave to keep her throne. After the double suicide of Marc Antoine and Cleopatra, Egypt becomes a Roman province under the direct control of Octave. The latter dedicates a temple to the Divine Julius, that is to say to his adoptive father, Caesar, deified after his death, at the place where his funeral took place. He thus recalls that he is the son of a deified person. Octavian receives the imperium, which allows him to govern the provinces containing legions, the other provinces being administered by the Senate.
Augustus, the founder of the Roman Empire
The reforms of the Roman Republic initiated by Julius Caesar having been interrupted by his assassination in 44, it is to his grandson Octave to whom falls the task of continuing the transformation of the Roman political regime. In 27 BC. AD, the Senate awarded Octave the title of Augustus (“consecrated” or “divine”), which later became synonymous with emperor, and that of princeps (“the first”). Continuing his habit of obtaining a prerogative without the associated office, Augustus was granted tribunician power, the prerogative of the tribunes of the plebs (which Augustus could not be anyway, this magistracy being reserved for plebeians and forbidden to patricians), which allows him to veto laws, to convene the Senate and to propose laws there, and confers on him inviolability (it is forbidden to do him the slightest harm or to ignore his veto). This tribunician power will be renewed each year. In 13 BC. J.-C., he becomes Pontifex maximus ("Great Pontiff"), thus ensuring control over religion.
Thus, without radically upsetting the functioning of the institutions, Augustus fashioned a new regime, the principate, thanks to which the predominance of a single man, the princeps, was recognized in affairs of state:the republican institutions remained (comites, Senate, magistrature), but gradually lost their prerogatives. The absolute authority of Augustus is ensured to him by the accumulation of powers. Augustus (like his successors) did not bear a royal title. He was only called the “First” (princeps, where the word “prince” comes from). Augustus restored peace to the Roman Empire after a long period of civil war, bequeathing it a strong and efficient system of provincial government, contributing to the stability and development of the Empire for the next two centuries.
The heirs of Augustus
With no male descendants, Octave Auguste appoints his son-in-law Tiberius to succeed him. the latter will prove to be a skilful administrator, cleaning up public finances and imposing strict discipline in the army. The end of his reign of Tiberius, who retired to a sumptuous villa in Capri, was marked by numerous plots including that of Sejanus, the prefect of the praetorium. It won't be the last time the Praetorian Guard interferes in Roman political life, making and unmaking emperors.
The third Roman emperor Caligula, would become infamous for his bloodthirsty madness. In 41, the soldiers of his praetorian guard assassinated him and proclaimed his uncle Claudius emperor, imposing him on the Senate. Claudius reinforced the borders of the empire by the conquest of the provinces of Judea and Thrace, then of Brittany. He also developed the administration, from which he freed the staff, thereby strengthening his power to the detriment of the republican magistrates. Finally, he facilitated access to the Senate, and more widely granted the right of citizenship to local elites. A shrewd and competent emperor, he died poisoned in 54, probably on the orders of his wife Agrippina. Nero, the son of the latter, is proclaimed emperor…. by the Praetorian Guard.
Under his tutor Seneca, the first five years of Nero's reign were marked by moderation and clemency, although Nero may have had his rival poisoned , Britannicus. In July 64, two-thirds of Rome burned while Nero was at Antium; he was also wrongly accused of having been responsible for it. The fathers of the Church made him the first persecutor of Christians on the basis of unclear texts by Suetonius and Tacitus, two stories unfavorable to the emperor. He sheltered the homeless and rebuilt the city by taking measures to protect against fires. His building programs, as well as the shows and the distributions of grain to the population, were financed by the plunder of Italy and the provinces. He wanted to be an artist and a mystical visionary, scandalizing the army and the aristocracy by performing in public in religious dramas.
The height of the Roman Empire
Nero was dethroned in an uprising of the army, and the army then had free rein to appoint the emperor. She often gave preference to Roman generals, rather than aristocrats. Vespasian and his sons, Titus and Domitian, the Flavian emperors, returning to a more sober principality of the early Empire, attempted to restore the authority of the Senate and promote the welfare of the people.
It was at this time that the famous Colosseum was built, which will host, among other things, many gladiator fights. The reign of Vespasian (69-79) was marked by the end of the Jewish revolt, which resulted in the destruction of the Temple of Solomon and the second great Diaspora in Jewish history. It was during the reign of Titus (79-81) that the eruption of Vesuvius occurred, which devastated the region south of Naples, including the cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii. Although literature flourished during the reign of Domitian (81-96), he soon revealed himself to be a cruel and suspicious tyrant, establishing a period of terror that only ended with his assassination.
The Empire reached its greatest prosperity during the 2nd century, and it was fortunate to be ruled by a succession of high-profile emperors:the Antonine dynasty . Political power in Rome is increasingly concentrated around the emperor, at the expense of the greatly weakened Senate. Trajan (98-117) fought against the Dacians, Armenians and Parthians, and stood out for his excellent administration. The Empire reached its extreme extension under his reign. The satirist Juvenal, the orator and letter writer Pliny the Younger and the historian Tacitus were all contemporaries of Trajan.
The twenty-one years of Hadrian's reign (117-138) were a time of peace and prosperity . By abandoning certain territories to the east, Hadrian consolidated the rest of the Empire and stabilized its borders. The reign of his successor, Antoninus Pius (138-161), was equally serene and peaceful. That of the next emperor, the Stoic philosopher Marcus Aurelius, who reigned (161-180) collegially with Lucius Aurelius Verus until the latter's death in 169, was troubled by incursions by different tribes migrating into various parts of the Empire.
The Antonines were confronted with the emergence of Christianity, which challenged the religious foundations of the imperial government by refusing the worship of the emperor. After the travels of Saint Paul in the 1st century, Christianity was immensely successful first in Asia, then in the West:according to some estimates, half of the population of Asia would have been converted to Christianity by the middle of the 2nd century. This phenomenon led the emperors to resort to systematic repression, which resulted in tragic persecutions.
Marc Aurelius was succeeded by his son Commodus (180-192). One of the most bloodthirsty tyrants in history, he was assassinated. The disorders of the reign of Commodus, such as those known under Caligula or Nero, also reflected a change in the Roman world:its extension and its wealth made it a pole of attraction for all the peoples with whom it was in contact; the pressure of the Barbarians increased not only at the borders, which had led the Antonines to systematize the fortification of the limes, but also inside the Empire itself where, through trade and participation in the auxiliary troops, they were increasingly present. Romanism, which had easily accepted the pre-eminence of the Hellenic cultural model from the Republican era, was faced with the absolute necessity of a new adaptation.
The Pax Romana imposes Roman civilization
The vast Roman world was divided into provinces, each with its own legal administration. Roman policy was to persuade local notables to take part in local government; their good and loyal services were rewarded with the award of Roman citizenship. Despite the existence of a state religion, the various peoples inside the Empire worshiped hundreds of gods, the Romans tolerated any religion that did not involve human sacrifice. They expected citizens to observe the official worship of the emperor and offer sacrifices to the Roman gods; any refusal was seen as a sign of disloyalty. Jews and Christians who did not take part in these cults were often persecuted.
All peoples of the Roman Empire were encouraged to adopt the Roman way of life. Whether in Brittany, near the Danube, in Palestine or in North Africa, the Romans built cities according to an identical plan, with aqueducts to ensure the supply of running water, baths, theaters, and all other amenities. which they considered essential to lead a civilized life. The army also helped to spread the Roman lifestyle. Thus, the provincials could engage in the "auxiliary troops. The men serving in the army learned Latin, the language of the Roman Empire, and obtained Roman citizenship on their retirement. In this way, they came to see themselves not as conquered peoples, but as full-fledged Romans.
In 212 Roman citizenship was granted to all free inhabitants of the Empire. Latin gradually replaced most of the local languages in the West (Celtic survived in Brittany, Basque in the Pyrenees), Romance languages (Italian, French, Spanish, Catalan, Portuguese and Romanian) all developed from regional Latin dialects. Latin did not make the same breakthrough in the eastern provinces of the Empire; Greek remained the most spoken language there for a long time.
Economy and Defense
Within the borders of the Empire, trade flourished, without the threat of war or looting, and Roman currency was the basis of all transactions. The Empire provided for its own basic needs. An important trade in agricultural commodities had developed to supply the cities, in full expansion:Rome, which was by far the largest, imported cereals from Egypt, Africa and Sicily.
Rome's network of paved roads was the most developed in the ancient world and the Mediterranean basin strictly controlled. Most of the inhabitants were peasants who made their own everyday objects and clothes. As for the expensive luxury goods intended for the wealthiest, such as spices, silks, perfumes, ivory and precious stones, they were imported from China, India and East Africa.
The Empire's prosperity began to decline in the 3rd century. As the tensions at the gates of the Empire increased under the pressure of the barbarian peoples, it was necessary to reinforce the defense at the borders. To find the resources to pay the Roman armies, the silver value of coins was reduced. Soon, the population saw the price of all goods rise, and inflation soared, degrading the imperial prestige. If an emperor was not victorious on the battlefield, the soldiers under his command could easily depose him or even execute him. Civil wars were frequent and Germans and Persians among others took advantage of this to lead devastating incursions into the empire. Of 26 emperors who reigned between 235 and 284, all but one died a violent death.
The Partition and the Fall of the Roman Empire
Diocletian (284-305) understood that the empire was too vast to be ruled by one man, and reformed it by dividing it into a western part and an eastern part, each with its own emperor (the Augustus) and his heir (the Caesar). Over time, two capitals emerged:Rome, in the West, and Constantinople, in the East. Diocletian doubled the strength of the army. It was again necessary to massively increase the tax burden, which caused more problems:in many places of the Empire, these crushing loads left hardly enough to live on with the peasants. This resulted in a significant demographic decline and joint recruitment problems for the army, which had to resort to mercenaries, mostly Germans.
In 313, Constantine the Great (306-337) extended religious tolerance to Christianity, Born a pagan, Constantine considered that the god of the Christians had intervened to offer him a decisive victory in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge a year earlier. He promulgated the Edict of Tolerance of Milan, which freed Christians from the fear of persecution. Although he was only baptized on his deathbed, he ordered during his reign to have churches built all over the empire. Christianity came to influence all aspects of Roman life, at the risk of undermining its cohesion. In 391, Emperor Theodosius (379-395) put an end to traditional pagan worship, and recognized Christianity as the official religion of the Empire.
At the end of the 4th century, the Huns, originating from Central Asia, emigrated to Eastern Europe. They pushed the Germanic tribes towards Rome. Some received lands inside the Empire in return for military service, but they proved unreliable allies. The Western empire was unable to resist the continual barbarian invasions in Gaul, Spain and North Africa.
Under Attila (434-453), "the scourge of God", the Huns also devastated the Empire before being defeated by a coalition of Romans and Germans, in the Catalan Fields. At the end of the 5th century, it was too late to save the Western Roman Empire:when its last emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed in 476, it had already collapsed, eaten away from inside and out. 'outside. The Eastern Roman Empire, which will later be called the Byzantine Empire, will nevertheless survive it for almost a thousand years.
Bibliography
- General History of the Roman Empire , volume 1, volume 2, volume 3, by Paul Petit. Story Points.
- Geopolitics of the Roman Empire, by Yann Le Bohec. Ellipses, 2014..
- Marcel Le Glay, Yann Le Bohec, Jean-Louis Voisin, Roman History, PUF, 2006