Post-Mauryan Social Life
The Sunga and possibly the rulers of the Satavahana dynasty of the post-Mauty period were Brahmins. Therefore, even in this period, the position of Brahmins was the best in the social system based on four varnas. The superiority of Brahmins has been confirmed in clear words in the then Smritis especially Manusmriti. According to Manu, Brahmins could not be executed and Shudra food was forbidden for Brahmins.
Even in this period artisans etc. mostly came from Shudra varna, but their wealth and prestige had increased now. During the Maurya period, all economic operations were controlled by the state, but with the decline of this empire, that control also ended and the craftsmen etc. got some personal freedom. In Yagyavalkya Smriti, Shudras have been given approval to become farmers, artisans and traders , In this way the difference between Vaishyas and Shudras got reduced somewhat, yet Manu made very strict rules for Shudras. According to Manu, the duty of the Shudras was to serve the three higher varnas, so the punishment for the crime of attacking the Brahmins was very harsh for the Shudras.
It was natural for the Shudra class to be discontented because of this rigidity. It is not surprising that the Shudras who were under foreign rulers who did not recognize the Varna system, may have turned against the Brahmins. Perhaps this is the reason why the Manusmriti mentions several safeguards against the hostile actions of the Shudras. Manu's reaction is actually a reaction to the extreme brahmin fanaticism in the circumstances of that period.
merger of foreign castes into Indian society
The traditional social system based on Varna during this period was also threatened by foreign invasions. The presence of foreign rulers like Yavana, Shaka, Kushan etc., who had political and economic power in India, was creating a crisis for the Varna system. Brahmins call them 'Mlechha' By saying that they could not ignore them, they had to compromise. For this reason, the Smritis gave him the title of Kshatriya with great skill. Thus apparently religion played an important role in the Aryanization of foreigners and non-Aryans.
Concept of Alphabet
Although Manu was a staunch brahminist, the 60 Varnasankaras mentioned in his memory show that he was realistic enough as well. An experimental solution to a social tension created by the arrival of foreign people is visible in the hypothesis of varnasankar. One aspect of social tension was also that which depicts Kaliyuga in Puranas is reflected in. The main reason for this tense situation was the manifestation of the feeling of opposition by the main producing classes, such as Vaishyas and Shudras. Manu has even said that unless these people are pressed with the help of a stick, the work will not work. An important form of the rebellion seems to have been the non-payment of state taxes. Clearly this would have created a tense situation in the society. Perhaps to deal with this situation, the kings encouraged the practice of land donation, because in time the responsibility of collecting taxes through it became the local middlemen, who also had police powers.
The Role of Religion
As far as the integration of foreigners is concerned, apart from the concept of Varnasankara, religion was also taken. There was a kind of competition among different religions as to how they would get the support of these foreign rulers. The traditional Brahmin religion was also undergoing a transformation. The rise of the pot of Bhakti-feeling especially took place during this period. Vaishnava, Shaivism and all religions opened their doors to foreigners. It is said in Manusmriti that Vaishnavism provided a powerful means to accommodate and accommodate castes like Yavanas, Sakas under the brahmanical social system due to their disregard for sacred religious rites and brahmins.
In Bhagavata Purana it is said that these castes have become holy by worshiping Vishnu and if foreign castes worship Vishnu then they become holy. The Besnagar inscription shows that the Yavana ambassador, Holiodorus, had embraced the Bhagavata religion and a Garudadhwaja in honor of Lord Vasudeva was dedicated.
Position of Women
Women were seen with respect in the post-Mauryan society. The position of women in the Satavahana period was better than before. The practice of the Satavahana kings adding the mother's name to their name, such as Gautamiputra Satakarni, Vasishthiputra Pulumavi, is an indication of the high status of women in society. Queen Nayanika ruled as the guardian of her minor son. Gautami has described Balshree as wise and pious.
In this period attention was given to female education. Many women used to earn their living by teaching work as teachers. Such women were called Upadhyayas. The woman had a share in the entire property of the family. Evidence of purdah system is not found, but the age of marriage was decreasing continuously.
Post-Mauryan Religious Life
BC And in the early centuries of AD, foreign castes supported Vaishnava and Shaiva deities. Yavana of Besnagar Ambassador Heliodorus describes him as Bhagavata, who conferred Garudadhwaja to Lord Vasudeva did. Another inscription from the time of Mahakshatrapa Shodasa mentions the construction of entrance gates and altars of Vasudeva's temple is mentioned. The Kushan kings were also not untouched by the Vaishnava, Shaiva influence. One of them named the Lord Vasudeva Had just worn it. A deity is depicted with a chakra in one hand and a Urdhwalinga in the other, on a gold posture of Huvishka, which is believed to be a precursor to the image of the syncretic deity Harihara.
Buddhism
The adoption of Buddhism by foreign rulers also made it easier for them to integrate into the Indian social system, as it was unlikely to create any problems related to caste, varna, etc. Many foreign rulers gave shelter to Buddhism. The Indo-Greek rulers inscribed Buddhist symbols on their coins and the Kushanas also donated a lot to Buddhist establishments, especially Kanishka's contribution to Buddhism is particularly laudable. During his time, many Buddhist missionaries were sent abroad, due to which Buddhism came in contact with different countries.
Buddhism received the support of the affluent business class within the country. Many monasteries of this time are the result of generous grants of merchants. Buddhism also reached Western and Central Asia through trade. Most of the country's monasteries were located on trade routes or on mountain passes on the west coast. As a result of huge grants, Buddhist monasteries became a storehouse of wealth. Monks and nuns also donated to Buddhist monasteries. This is clear evidence that they no longer followed the early Buddhist policy that bhikkhus and nuns should give up all their supernatural things. Therefore a change in the nature of Buddhism became inevitable.
The Rise of Mahayana Buddhism
Shortly after the death of the Buddha, debates began regarding the meaning of his teachings, and several councils unsuccessfully attempted to resolve the dispute. By the time of Kanishka 18 differents of Buddhism The branches were done.
According to tradition, Buddhism formally split into two branches, the Hinayana and the Mahayana, at the Fourth Buddhist Council during the time of Kanishka. The specialty of this period was that the path of devotion was becoming more popular than the path of knowledge or the path of action. The rise of the Mahayana sect in Buddhism is indicative of this trend. In the Hinayana sect, Buddha was only a guide to human beings, but now he is considered a deity.
The main feature of the Mahayana branch was the concept of bodhisattva, which has taken birth several times for the welfare of other beings and which will come for the salvation of beings in future also. This form of Buddha came to be known as Maitreya Buddha. Over time a chain of bodhisattvas developed. The Hinayana had the ideal of attaining the rank of arhat for individual nirvana, while the Mahayana sect placed before everyone the ideal of the bodhisattva. Seeing the Buddha not as a religious preacher, he was seen as a transcendental God and worship of his idols started. Worship of the life-signs of Buddha continued as before, but now idol worship started taking its place.
This is how the concept of Bhakti developed in Mahayana Buddhism. His biography was rewritten during this period to emphasize the transcendental qualities of the Buddha. The early books written for this purpose are 'Mahavastu', 'Lalitavistar' And the unspoken 'Buddhacharit ' are particularly important.
Jainism
Like Buddhism, Jainism also underwent changes. Around the 1st century AD, there was a split in Jainism as well. The orthodox Jains were called Digambaras and the liberal Jains were called Shwetambars. Like Buddhism, idol worship developed in Jainism too.
Brahmin Dharma
Buddhism and Jainism were against Vedic religion, which included animal sacrifices and sacrificial rituals. People started getting attracted towards the pagan sect based on devotion. The fierce blows of Buddhism and other anti-scriptural religious sects inflicted great damage on the Vedic practices and the prestige and dominance of the Brahmins. The position of Brahmins was deteriorating due to a decrease in the demand for yagya-rituals , therefore they were compelled to take shelter of some other means of subsistence which Manu has ordained in his memory.
Brahmins, on the other hand, adopted many popular rituals to deal with the situation arising out of new economic and political factors and to maintain a brahminical social order.
Vedic deities were replaced by new deities, in which Trimurti of Brahma-Vishnu-Mahesh Very famous. Brahma was recognized as the creator, Vishnu as the creator and Shiva as the destroyer. Gradually Shiva and Vishnu became more popular gods and their followers came to be called Shaivas and Vaishnavas. Now in the budding Brahmin religion also, devotion was given primacy in place of ritualistic rituals of Vedic religion.
Post-Mauryan Artistic Activities
The basis of art during this period was mainly Buddhism. It was greatly encouraged by the various categories of wealthy merchants and rulers. Special development of architecture is the main feature of this period has been The architectural artists of this time created monuments, stupas, cave-temples (known as 'chaitya ') and built a large number of Sangharamas or Viharas and buildings. Katyayan has a passion for crafts 'Kari' word is used. Caves excavated in the mountains were used as temples and abode of monks. In the western Deccan, the Satavahanas and their successor kings excavated many large caves. Among these, the caves of Karle are the oldest Whose beauty is very developed. These caves gradually increased in size, as is evident from the Ajanta and Ellora caves, some of which also date to this period.
Sculpture has also been used in the making of pylons and enclosures of large Buddhist stupas as seen in Bharhut and Sanchi. Development of sculpture in Deccan around 2nd century AD in Amaravati also Happened. The remains of this period have also been found in Nagarjunakonda. Here some boulders have been found near the stupa, on which some scenes from the life of Buddha have been inscribed. At this time the Vastu-craft had developed so much that Knowledge workers of 18 crafts in making a palace There is talk of working. Probably these craftsmen must have been sculptors, architects, painters, jewelers, blacksmiths, carpenters, goldsmiths etc.
Gandhara Art
Sculpture was developed only during the Mauryan period and the creation of exquisite sculptures became possible even in this era. In the Kushan period, the sculptors were influenced by the artists of the western world, as a result of which B.C. प्रथम शताब्दी के मध्य से उत्तर-पश्चिम में गंधार में कला की एक और शैली का विकास हुआ, जिसे गांधार शैली कहते हैं। इस शैली को ग्रीक-बौद्ध शैली भी कहा जाता है। इस कला के मुख्य केंद्र थे- तक्षशिला, पुष्कलावती, नगरहार, स्वातघाटी या उड्डीयान, बामियान तथा बाहनीक या बैक्ट्रिया। इस काल की विषय-वस्तु बौद्ध परंपरा से ली गई थी, किंतु निर्माण का ढंग यूनानी था। इस कला में पहली बार बुद्ध की सुंदर मूर्तियाँ बनाई गईं। गांधार शैली की प्रारंभिक बौद्ध मूर्तियों में बुद्ध का मुख ग्रीक देवता अपोलो से मिलता-जुलता है। मूर्तियों का परिवेश रोमन टोगा जैसा है। मूर्तियों में शरीर की संरचना, मांसपेशियों और शरीर के कपड़ों को सुंदरता से दिखाया गया है। बाल के अलंकरण पर विशेष ध्यान दिया गया है। ई. सन् की तीसरी शती में गांधार कला के उदाहरण हद्दा और जौलियन में मिले हैं, जो कला की दृष्टि से बहुत उत्कृष्ट हैं। यही कला हद्दा (नगरहार) से बामियान और वहाँ से चीनी तुर्किस्तान और चीन पहुँची।
गांधार कला के अंतर्गत मूर्तियों में शरीर की आकृति को सर्वथा यथार्थ दिखाने का प्रयत्न किया गया है, वहीं मथुरा शैली में निर्मित मूर्तियों की मुखाकृति में आध्यात्मिक सुख और शांति व्यक्त की गई है। दूसरे शब्दों में, गांधार कला यथार्थवादी थी और मथुरा की आदर्शवादी , गांधार कला में बुद्ध और बोधिसत्त्व की मूर्तियों के अतिरिक्त अन्य प्रकार की मूतियां भी बनीं। कपिशा या बेग्राम से हाथीदाँत के फलकों पर मथुरा और अमरावती के सदृश प्रसाधिका, नृत्य-दृश्य, पानगोष्ठी, हंसक्रीड़ा, शुकक्रीड़ा तथा प्रसाधनरत स्त्रियों के चित्रण मिलते हैं जिनकी भाव-भंगिमा अत्यंत मोहक और जीवंत है।
मथुरा कला (Mathura Art)
कुषाण काल में ही स्वदेशी भावना से प्रेरित कलाकारों ने ऐसी कला को विकसित किया जो पाश्चात्य कला से पूर्णतः अप्रभावित थी, जिसे मथुरा कला शैली के नाम से जाना जाता है। जैन धर्म के अनुयायियों ने मथुरा में मूर्तिकला की एक शैली को प्रश्रय दिया, जहाँ शिल्पियों ने महावीर की एक मूर्ति बनाई। जहाँ गांधार कला पर यूनानी प्रभाव दिखाई देता है, वहीं मथुरा कला मूलतः भारतीय शैली में विकसित हुई और कुषाण शासकों का प्रश्रय पाकर फली-फूली। मथुरा में लाल रंग के पत्थरों से बुद्ध और बोधिसत्त्व की सुंदर मूर्तियाँ बनीं। वासुदेवशरण अग्रवाल का मानना है कि बुद्ध की पहली मूर्ति मथुरा कला में ही बनी, किंतु अधिकांश विद्वानों का मानना है कि गांधार कला में बुद्ध की प्रथम मूर्ति बनी थी। प्रायः कहा जाता है कि कुषाणों के संरक्षण के फलस्वरूप बौद्ध धर्म का विकास हुआ। इसके अतिरिक्त जैन तीर्थंकरों, ब्राह्मण धर्म से संबद्ध देवी-देवताओं, अलौकिक शक्तियों की भी मूर्तियाँ बनाई गईं। मथुरा की मूर्तियाँ भी सजीव और भव्य हैं, किंतु गांधार कला जैसी मोहक नहीं हैं।
जहाँ तक ब्राह्मण धर्म का सवाल है, उसके भी अवशेष कुछ कम नहीं हैं। मथुरा, लखनऊ, बनारस (भारत कला भवन) आदि अनेकों संग्रहालयों में इस काल के विष्णु, शिव, स्कंद-कार्तिकेय के निरूपणों के उदाहरण मिलते हैं। कृष्ण-लीला के कुछ अत्यंत महत्त्वपूर्ण एवं सुंदर निरूपण इसी काल में मथुरा शैली में मिलते हैं।
चित्रकला (Paintings)
चित्रकला के सबसे अधिक प्राचीन उदाहरण अजंता की गुफा संख्या 9 व 10 में मिलते हैं। गुफा संख्या 9 में सोलह उपासकों को स्तूप की ओर बढ़ते हुए दिखाया गया है। गुफा संख्या 10 में जातक कथाएं अंकित हैं। इसमें उपासकों को बोधिवृक्ष और स्तूप की पूजा करते हुए दिखाया गया है। इस काल की अधिकतर कलाकृतियाँ बौद्ध धर्म से संबंधित हैं और इनमें से अधिकतर धनी व्यापारियों द्वारा बनवाई हुई हैं।
मौर्योत्तर काल में साहित्यिक विकास (Literary Development in Post-Mauryan Period)
मौर्योत्तर काल में साहित्य के भी विभिन्न रूपों का विकास हुआ। इस समय संस्कृत, प्राकृत और तमिल भाषा और साहित्य का विकास हुआ। सातवाहन नरेश कवियों के आश्रयदाता तथा प्राकृत भाषा के परिपोषक थे। उनके शासनकाल में प्राकृत भाषा और साहित्य की बड़ी प्रगति हुई। एक सातवाहन शासक द्वारा हाल छद्मनाम से लिखी गई ‘गाथा-सप्तशती’ प्राकृत भाषा की सुंदर काव्य रचना है, यद्यपि इस काल में साहित्य रचना में संस्कृत भाषा का प्रचलन अधिक था।
BC दूसरी शती के मध्य में पतंजलि ने अपना ‘महाभाष्य ’ लिखा, जो उनके पूर्ववर्ती वैयाकरण पाणिनी की प्रसिद्ध रचना अष्टाध्यायी की टीका है। चिकित्साशास्त्र पर भी मौलिक ग्रंथ लिखे गये, जिनमें सबसे प्रसिद्ध चरककृत ‘संहिता’ है। चरक कुषाण शासक कनिष्क के समकालीन थे। इस क्षेत्र में एक अन्य प्रसिद्ध व्यक्ति सुश्रुत हैं। चिकित्साशास्त्र एवं ज्योतिषशास्त्र में भारत ने पश्चिमी जगत् से संपर्क का बहुत लाभ उठाया। कुछ विद्वानों के अनुसार भरत का ‘नाट्यशास्त्र’ और वात्स्यायन का ‘कामसूत्र ’ भी इसी काल की रचनाएँ हैं। भारत की सर्वप्रसिद्ध स्मृति ‘मनुस्मृति’ BC दूसरी शती से ईसा की दूसरी शती के मध्य लिखी गई।
इसी समय में ब्राह्मणों ने महाकाव्यों में भी संशोधन किये। संस्कृत काव्य की प्रारंभिक शैली की महत्त्वपूर्ण रचना अश्वघोष की ‘बुद्ध चरित’ है। अश्वघोष भी कनिष्क के समकालीन थे। इन्हीं का एक अन्य छंदबद्ध काव्य ‘सौंदरानंद’ है, जो बुद्ध के सौतेले भाई आनंद के बौद्ध धर्म में दीक्षित होने के प्रसंग पर आधारित है। अश्वघोष के नाटकों के कुछ भाग मध्य एशिया के एक विहार में प्राप्त हुए थे।
संभवतः सबसे पहले संपूर्ण नाटक रचने का श्रेय भास को है। इनका प्रसिद्ध नाटक है ‘स्वप्नवासवदत्तम् ’, जो राजा उदयन एवं वासवदत्ता की प्रेमकथा पर आधारित है। अब सामान्यतः संस्कृत भाषा की क्लिष्टता में वृद्धि हो रही थी और यह केवल ब्राह्मणों की भाषा न रहकर शासकवर्ग की भाषा बनती जा रही थी और राजकीय अभिलेखों की भाषा आडम्बरपूर्ण होती जा रही थी।
मौर्यों एवं सातवाहनों द्वारा प्रयुक्त सामान्य प्राकृत भाषा का स्थान अब संस्कृत ले रही थी। अब अभिलेखों में प्राकृत भाषा के बदले संस्कृत भाषा पर विशेष बल दिया जाने लगा था। रुद्रदामन् का गिरनार अभिलेख संस्कृत काव्य का पहला और अनूठा उदाहरण है। कुषाणकालीन सुई-बिहार के अभिलेख में भी संस्कृत भाषा का प्रयोग किया गया है।