1. Rise of Protestantism and the Reformation (1517-1648):
- Martin Luther sparked the Protestant Reformation with his Ninety-Five Theses in 1517, leading to the split of Western Christianity into Protestant and Catholic denominations.
2. Age of Exploration (15th-17th centuries):
- European powers explored the globe in search of trade routes, resources, and new lands, leading to the establishment of colonies and the Columbian Exchange.
- Explorers such as Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama, Ferdinand Magellan, and others made groundbreaking voyages.
3. English Reformation (1534-1603):
- Henry VIII's break with the Catholic Church led to the establishment of the Church of England, solidifying Protestantism in England.
4. Council of Trent (1545-1563):
- In response to the Reformation, the Catholic Church held a series of meetings to reaffirm its doctrines, leading to the Counter-Reformation.
5. Ottoman Expansion:
- The Ottoman Empire continued its expansion, dominating the Balkans, North Africa, and the Middle East.
6. Scientific Revolution:
- The Scientific Revolution, marked by the work of figures like Nicolaus Copernicus, Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler, and Francis Bacon, transformed scientific thought and ushered in a new era of intellectual exploration.
7. Dutch Revolt (1568-1648):
- The Dutch provinces fought for independence from Spanish rule, resulting in the establishment of the Dutch Republic.
8. Thirty Years' War (1618-1648):
- A major European conflict involving religious and political disputes, the Thirty Years' War had devastating effects, particularly in Central Europe.
9. Mughal Empire in India:
- The Mughal Empire, under rulers such as Akbar, expanded and reached its peak, promoting religious tolerance and cultural blending.
10. Formation of the Dutch East India Company (1602):
- The Dutch established the Dutch East India Company, one of the first joint-stock companies that played a significant role in global trade and colonization.
11. Shakespearean Era:
- William Shakespeare's literary works flourished during this time, making him one of the most influential writers in English literature.
12. Jamestown Colony (1607):
- The first permanent English settlement in North America was founded at Jamestown in present-day Virginia, marking the beginning of English colonization in the New World.
These events laid the groundwork for significant changes in religion, politics, science, and global exploration that would shape the centuries that followed.