What was a pharaoh?

Pharaoh, in ancient Egypt, the title given to the ruler of the land. By extension, the term is applied to the rulers of the united kingdom created in 3100 bc by the conquest of Lower Egypt by Upper Egypt. The last native pharaoh of Egypt was Nectanebo II (360–343 bc), after whom the Persian conquerors used the title. The term was derived from per ‘house,’ and ‘aaw ‘great.’ The pharaoh was regarded as the incarnation of the god Horus on earth, and was invested with divine authority, being the source of all justice and truth. The pharaoh was the head of the pantheon of Egyptian gods and responsible for the care of their temples and statues, as well as for the due performance of the rituals necessary to maintain the correct order of the world. He was also the leader of Egypt's military forces and chief lawgiver. The pharaoh wore the double crown, a combination of the white crown of Upper Egypt and the red crown of Lower Egypt. His throne name and personal name were inscribed within a cartouche, an oval with a rope around it.

The concept of the god-king was fundamental to ancient Egyptian religious and political ideology. As early as the predynastic period (before c.3100 bc) the rulers of Upper and Lower Egypt had associated themselves with the falcon-god Horus and Seth respectively. Once Upper Egypt had successfully conquered Lower Egypt, the pharaoh was the embodiment of the victorious ruler. Narmer, the first pharaoh of the new dynasty, was regarded as the incarnation of Horus who united the two kingdoms and defeated his enemies. The pharaoh's titles reflected this: ‘He of the Sedge and Horus’ as ruler of Upper and Lower Egypt, and ‘Great House’ referring to his palace. The pharaoh's person was sacrosanct and the pharaoh was addressed by his subjects with such titles as ‘your Majesty,’ and ‘Lord of the Two Lands.’ The pharaoh was also identified with the sun-god Re, and took the title ‘Son of Re.’ The pharaoh's life, and especially the health of his body, were of concern to the entire nation, and special precautions were taken to ensure his safety and well-being. The pharaoh's subjects bowed to the ground in his presence and approached him on their knees. The pharaoh was also the supreme religious leader; he played a central role in many ceremonies, and was often represented in religious art offering libations to the gods. The pharaoh was also the owner of all the land in Egypt and received tribute from the conquered lands. The pharaoh was also a skilled and experienced warrior, responsible for the defence of Egypt against foreign invaders. He led his armies in battle and was often depicted in art as a victorious warrior. The pharaoh was also a builder and was responsible for the construction of many temples and other monuments. He was also a patron of the arts and encouraged the production of literature and art. The pharaoh was also a patron of trade and encouraged the development of new trading routes. He also encouraged the development of new technologies and was responsible for the construction of many monuments.