- The rise of money economy: The introduction of money as a means of exchange and the subsequent growth of trade led to the decline of the barter system, which had been the foundation of feudal economy. As economies shifted from subsistence-based agriculture to production for trade, the need for cash increased, and serfs began to demand payment for their labor.
- The growth of cities and the emergence of the bourgeoisie: The rise of towns and cities, initially as centers of trade, and later, manufacturing, led to a new class of people—the bourgeoisie or the middle class. This class was made up of merchants, traders, skilled artisans and professionals. The bourgeoisie challenged the feudal order and sought to establish a more centralized, bureaucratic government that would protect their interests and facilitate trade and commerce.
- Changes in military technology and the decline of the knight: The invention of gunpowder and the rise of firearms revolutionized warfare and weakened the importance of the feudal knight. The knights were no longer the only skilled fighters, and their heavily armored cavalry became less effective against armies equipped with firearms. As the role of the knight declined, the feudal military system based on the levy of knights and their vassals began to decline, and standing armies, supported by the newly wealthy monarchs and the bourgeoisie, began to take their place.
- The decline of the Catholic Church: The Catholic Church played a crucial role in maintaining feudal society through its religious and ideological influence. However, the authority and prestige of the church began to decline in the late Middle Ages due to factors such as the rise of secularism, the corruption of the clergy, and the Protestant Reformation. The weakening of the church's influence further undermined the religious basis of feudalism and contributed to its decline.
- Centralized monarchies: The rise of strong, centralized monarchies was a major factor in the decline of feudalism. Rulers sought to consolidate their power, weaken the influence of the feudal lords and establish greater control over their territories. They imposed taxes and administrative systems, and some even attempted to limit the privileges and power of the nobility.
- Peasants' revolts and Jacqueries: Throughout the late Middle Ages, there were numerous peasant revolts and Jacqueries, which were mass uprisings by peasants against the feudal system. These revolts, although they were often ruthlessly suppressed, demonstrated the simmering discontent and anger among the peasant population and challenged the authority of feudal lords.
It's important to note that the transition from feudalism to modern state systems was not a linear process, and remnants of feudalism persisted in some areas for a considerable period. However, these factors played a crucial role in weakening the feudal system and paving the way for the emergence of new forms of social and economic organization.