1. Rise of Trade and Urbanization:
- The growth of trade and the emergence of towns and cities challenged the self-sufficient feudal economy. Merchants and artisans gained wealth and influence, weakening the power of feudal lords.
2. Decline of Serfdom:
- Serfs, tied to the land and obligated to work for landlords, began to gain more freedom and mobility. Some migrated to cities, further eroding the feudal labor system.
3. Strengthening of Monarchies:
- Kings asserted their authority over regional lords, centralizing power and diminishing the autonomy of feudal nobles.
4. Military Changes:
- Advancements in weaponry and tactics, such as gunpowder and professional armies, reduced the significance of feudal knights and made centralized governance more effective.
5. Shift in Ideologies:
- Renaissance humanism and religious reformations propagated the notion of individual liberty, equality, and direct relationship with authority, undermining the legitimacy of feudal hierarchies.
Over time, feudal ties loosened, and a new social order based on trade, individual rights, and centralized states emerged in Europe.