- Writing system: The Mesopotamians developed one of the earliest known writing systems, known as cuneiform, which was characterized by wedge-shaped marks made on clay tablets.
- Urbanization: The Mesopotamians built some of the world's first cities, including Ur, Uruk, and Babylon, which were characterized by dense urban centers, monumental architecture, and centralized governance.
- Religion: Mesopotamian religion was polytheistic, with a pantheon of gods and goddesses, including Enlil, Anu, and Inanna, who were often associated with natural forces and phenomena.
- Social structure: Mesopotamian society was highly stratified, with a small elite class of priests, rulers, and wealthy landowners, followed by a larger class of commoners and slaves.
- Economic system: The Mesopotamian economy was based on agriculture, trade, and manufacturing. The land was fertile and well-suited for farming, and the region also had access to important trade routes.
- Cultural achievements: The Mesopotamians made significant advancements in mathematics, astronomy, and literature, and they produced some of the world's earliest works of literature, including the Epic of Gilgamesh.
- Art and architecture: Mesopotamian art and architecture are characterized by the use of mud-brick, ziggurats (stepped towers), and elaborate temples and palaces. They were also skilled in metallurgy and produced various metal objects, including jewelry, weapons, and tools.
- Scientific and technological achievements: The Mesopotamians made important contributions to science and technology, including the development of the wheel, the plow, and the water clock, as well as advances in astronomy and mathematics.
These characteristics collectively define the essence of Mesopotamian civilization and shaped the societies that developed in this region.