The English longbow, also called longbow or straight bow, is an evolution of the Welsh bow. It is a very powerful medieval bow, about 2 meters long, very used by the English, both for hunting and war.
Its use by the English army arises from its disappointments during the wars in Wales and Scotland. The English then decided to resort to it massively, which made it possible to defeat the Welsh and then Scottish pikemen. This weapon still proved decisive during most of the Hundred Years' War (particularly during the battles of Crécy, Poitiers and Agincourt).
Many solutions were tried by the French to neutralize this dreaded weapon:dismissal of mounted fighters, increase in the surface protected by plates in armor, protection of horses, neutralization of archers or creation of ordinances and francs companies -archers. The French had to resolve for a long time purely and simply to avoid fighting the English head-on in open country and reorient their strategy towards siege warfare, using the tactics of the desert land which left the English cavalcades free to plunder the country. The defensive strategy implied by the use of the longbow was only undermined by the appearance of field artillery:the English army was then decimated at Formigny and Castillon.
In the 16th century, the archer and his bow were definitively supplanted by the arquebusier and his arquebuse.
Description.
The study of the 137 longbows found in the wreck of the ship Mary Rose, sunk in 1545, has enriched the knowledge of this weapon[. It is a simple bow, fashioned from a single piece of yew, a wood whose intrinsic qualities make it behave like a composite bow. Other substitute woods (by decreasing efficiency:elm, ash, hazel, even oak) can be used, but at the cost of a significant loss of efficiency. It measures between 1.70 m and 2.10 m. Its section is circular at the handle and D-shaped at the ends[4]. The widths are 1.8 to 3 cm at the head of the branch, 3 to 4 cm in the middle of the branch and 5 to 6 cm at the level of the handle. As the shape of the bow must follow the grain of the wood, the bow can sometimes have a bumpy shape (effectiveness taking precedence over aesthetics)[4]. It does not have an arrow rest:in the shooting position, it rests on the archer's bow hand.
From the early 14th century, the longbow was fitted with horn ends that had an indentation where the string was attached. This serves as a shock absorber and rope stopper and accentuates the propulsion of the arrow. Making the bow takes about a day's work.
The cord is a noble element woven in hemp and sometimes in silk[3]. Its cost counts for half of the total cost of a bow. It is waxed to protect against rain. Based on arrow nocks found on the wreck of the Mary Rose, it is inferred that the string must have been approximately 3.2mm in diameter.
The manufacture of bows, arrows and bowstrings was the responsibility of skilled workers, who benefited from tax exemptions and even debt forgiveness.
Mechanical considerations
To obtain a powerful bow, it is necessary to use a nervous wood, because the speed of expulsion of the arrow is proportional to the speed with which the bow recovers its shape when shot[6]. The surface facing the shooter is called the belly and works concentrically (in compression), unlike the back which faces the target and works eccentrically (in stretch). The wood used must therefore offer the best resistance to these compression-extension stresses. To do this, we use the difference in structure between the sapwood (the outer rings that are younger and softer) and the heartwood (the most central rings, very hard and very resistant to compression). In the case of a non-composite bow like the English straight bow, the sapwood, more elastic, forms the back of the bow and the heartwood, more resistant to compression, is used as the belly.
Yew is the wood combining the greatest number of qualities necessary for the realization of a powerful and resistant bow. Its lignin fibers have an arrangement that gives them great elasticity (in spirals oriented at sixty degrees with respect to the axis of the branch, which allows them to stretch in the event of eccentric work). It grows very slowly and its growth rings are very thin and close together, which divides the movement assigned to each fiber by the same amount:the smaller the growth rings, the more resistant and nervous the wood is[7]. It has few knots and is devoid of resin pockets which represent so many potential weak points. Finally, it is rot-proof, which, with its resistance qualities, gives it a long life. On the other hand, it has the defect of being toxic (and dangerous for breeding) and has therefore often been felled, which makes it a rare wood whose qualities are further improved if it grows slowly, its rings then being much tighter (the best specimens grow at altitude and on poor soil). The English imported it (mainly from Italy, but also from France and Spain). Richard II and Charles VII had it planted.
On the other hand, the longer the bow, the less it bends when you cock it and the less likely it is to reach its elastic limits. We can potentially constrain it further, thus gaining even more power. This is why the English bow is particularly long:it deforms less, so it loses its characteristics less over time, is less likely to break and still gains in range[.
Arrows
The arrows used with the longbow are relatively standardized, because mass-produced (it takes between 400,000 and 800,000 arrows for a campaign). They are deliberately heavy (to increase their perforation capacity), between 60 and 80 g instead of 20 g for a modern arrow. The 3,500 arrows found in the wreck of the Mary Rose measure between 61 and 81 cm (76 cm on average) and are cut from poplar or ash. The empennage is made of goose feather and measures between 17 and 25 cm, depending on whether you want to focus on precision or range. The notch is exposed for 4 to 5 cm and can be reinforced by a small strip of bone or horn placed perpendicular to the string.
Accessories
Arrows are transported on carts and supplied to archers in tied bundles of 12 or 24. slowing the rate of fire, the arrows are therefore planted on the ground in front of the shooter. At the beginning of the 15th century, the case appeared, a cylinder of oilcloth or fine oiled leather, one end of which was sewn with a round piece of thick leather pierced with 12 or 24 holes to pass the arrows. This very light quiver allows both to protect the arrows from moisture and for mounted archers to transport their ammunition on horseback.
The power of the bow and the 3-finger shooting technique require the wearing of leather gloves. The typical model is a leather half-glove attached to the wrist covering the index, middle and ring fingers.
A leather armband, strapped to the forearm holding the bow, protects the shooter from the real whiplash produced by the string after the release.
Performance
The yew bow has the paradoxical particularity of being a simple bow, fashioned from a single piece of material, while behaving like a composite bow. Indeed, the yew is shaped in such a way that it includes a part of sapwood (on the back) and a part of heart (ventral), the heartwood. The sapwood works in extension and the heart in compression. Their properties complement each other and give this weapon ballistic qualities far superior to simple bows drawn from other essences.
Physical quantities
The power of a bow is measured in pounds at 28 inches of draw length (the weight that must be deployed to stretch the string to a draw length of 28 inches, or 71 cm). It is a force in physics. During the Hundred Years War, when archers were particularly trained, bows requiring a force of 120 to 130 pounds to be drawn, i.e. 530 to 580 newtons (50 to 60 kilogram-force) were particularly widespread [4]:bows found on the Mary Rose require a force of 350 and 800 newtons (80 to 180 pounds!).
The speed of the arrows is initially about 200 km/h and drops to 130 km/h at 200 m. For this speed and an arrow of 70 grams, the initial kinetic energy is of the order of 110 joules, and the momentum of 3.9 kg.m.s-1, which is equivalent to an impulse of the same value provided by shooter is 3.9 N.s (Newtons.second). The impulse time can be estimated at 0.025 seconds (0.71 meters traveled at the average speed of half the final speed, i.e. 27.8 m.s-1) and the average force applied to the arrow during this impulse of 155 newtons. The power developed by the arc during the shot is around 4200 watts.
Scope
Their range is estimated to be between 165 and 228 yards, although a replica of one of the bows found aboard the Mary Rose fired a 53.6 gram arrow at 328 yards and a 95.9 gram arrow at 249.9 meters]. Arrows are, however, unable to pierce plate armor at this distance. They are effective against chainmail when the distance is less than 100 meters and against plate armor below 60 meters.
Piercing power
Depending on the desired effect, the archer has the choice between several types of arrows. The most frequently used are the pointed bodkin with a square section, which are particularly perforating and easy to produce. Since arrows have a moderate kinetic energy (compared to that of a firearm projectile), they generate neither shock nor cavitation effects. On the other hand, because of their great length, they have a good sectional density and therefore a great perforating power[15]. Therefore, this type of arrow is used at close range against heavy infantry or cavalry. These arrows, very effective against chain mail, can however ricochet off plate armor if they do not arrive perpendicular to the surface. For a shot at less than 60 meters, they can sink several centimeters, causing more or less serious injuries.
It is particularly to the head that limited depth penetration is devastating. This part of the body is however well protected by the profile of the bascinets of the time, designed to deflect the lances. The other vulnerable points of the fighter are the neck and the limbs, where pass arterial trunks likely to be severed. For this reason, the armors of the knights gradually evolved during the Hundred Years War, resorting more and more to the use of plates. The perforation capacity can be improved by lubricating the points with wax, this process also making it possible to limit the oxidation of the steel (the use of this process by English archers is probable but not verified).
Against lightly armored infantry or horses, broad-tipped or barbed arrows are far more devastating, even at long range. Fired by the thousands, they do not need to be very precise and their range can therefore be extended by reducing the empennage.
Rate of fire
In the 14th and 15th centuries, an English archer had to be able to shoot at least ten arrows per minute, going up to sixteen aimed shots per minute for experienced archers. During the battle, the archers carried with them between 60 and 72 arrows, enough to last about 6 minutes at full rate of fire[17]. On the battlefield, young boys were used to supply the men with arrows. These were placed in bulk in front of the archers or planted in the ground. This last method makes it possible to shorten the time required to shoot an arrow as much as possible. The presence of telluric germs on the tip also increases the risk and severity of an infection secondary to an injury (these germs can be responsible for gas gangrene and, in the absence of appropriate care, death by sepsis then septic shock).
The rate of fire of English longbows is much higher than that of crossbows (capable of firing a maximum of four times per minute) or any other throwing weapon of the time. The opponent is then subjected to a rain of arrows, which makes effective a long-range shot where the loss of precision caused by the distance is compensated by the quantity of arrows sent. This is a huge difference compared to the crossbow which is used for straight shooting and which inevitably becomes less precise with distance. On the other hand, the bow can easily be unstrung and its string sheltered, it is much less vulnerable to rain than a crossbow (which was decisive, especially during the battle of Crécy), d much as crossbow sinew strings lose their power when wet, unlike hemp strings on longbows which gain in hardness when wet.
Shooting technique
The force required to shoot with a longbow requires 3 fingers (Mediterranean draw), unlike the bows used at the time in France which could be drawn with only 2 fingers (pinch draw)
The longbow has the disadvantage of being quite difficult to "tame" and requiring more technique and strength than the recurve bow. Autopsies carried out on the bodies of Welsh archers have revealed spinal distortions, evidence of the stresses suffered.
The bow is particularly famous for "shaking" the shooter at the time of the release. Those accustomed to this type of bow recommend slightly bending the arm holding the bow to avoid "the blow in the neck".
Due to the size of the bow, the string must be stretched behind the cheek and not just up to the chin (the fingers reaching the corner of the lip). As a result, the Welsh bow cannot be practiced with a sight. You can shoot either instinctively or “bare-bow”. The release must immediately follow the cocking, because the constraints are such that they can break the arc if the release is delayed too much.
Instinctive shooting requires long training, as the brain must know perfectly the parabolic flight of an arrow, which varies according to the initial angle, the power of the bow and the weight of the arrow. The archer concentrates only on the point of impact, the subconscious of the brain doing the rest.
In the "bare-bow" shot, the position of the fingers on the string is modified according to the distance (in English "string-walking"). Other archers change the anchor point on the face.
Tactical use
The range of the longbow (effective on weakly protected fighters or horses at 300 meters), forces the opponent to attack. This made it possible to attract him to unfavorable ground and to force him to attack a fortified position beforehand:at Crécy the English army took refuge on a hillock, at Poitiers behind hedges, at Agincourt behind mired ground. The archers have stakes in front of their lines so as to break the assaults. Their rear or flanks are covered by chariots or almost impassable obstacles for heavy cavalry (rivers, forests, ...).
At long distances (from 100 to 300 meters), arrows with a short tail and a flat point or “barb” are used, which are more devastating on poorly protected combatants. Archers are used by the hundreds, even by the thousands (6,000 at Crécy or Verneuil, 7,000 at Agincourt). This allows clouds of arrows to rain down on the opponent (72 arrows per minute per square meter) and compensates for the imprecision of shooting at such a distance. This is made possible by the extraordinary rate of fire of the longbow (crossbows, which have a higher piercing power on plate armor but a much lower rate, cannot produce such a rain of arrows). At Crécy, the 6,000 Genoese crossbowmen engaged by the French had to withdraw quickly[. On the other hand, such a rain of darts considerably disrupts the cavalry charges by injuring the horses (unprotected at the start of the Hundred Years' War) which can fall, get carried away or throw their rider off (the fall of the rider being aggravated by the weight of the armour). The density of arrows planted in the ground is also such that it hinders the progress of the assaults (at the Battle of Nájera, it is impossible to walk through the field of arrows). The corpses of knights and especially their horses are obstacles that impede the progress of the lines of assault, as are the runaway horses that flee in the opposite direction and disorganize the charges. To obtain a continuous shot, the archers are deployed in three double rows which will alternately supply arrows.
At shorter distances, the shot is less parabolic, with more piercing (bodkin point) and more precise (long tail) projectiles. The archers are placed on the wings so that their shots do not ricochet off the profiled armor of the riders to deflect arrows and spears coming from the front. They are arranged in a V or crescent shape rather than in a line, again to achieve more effective crossfire against plate armor.
When the cavalry charge comes into contact, the mounts are impaled in the stakes placed in front of the archers (calthops). The latter are more and more versatile as the Hundred Years War progresses and are equipped with swords or axes, to finish off the unhorsed knights, encased in their heavy armor.
Selection and training of archers
During the Hundred Years' War, longbows of 120 to 130 pounds were particularly common (compared to today's bows which require a force between 40 and 80 pounds). The selection of archers is therefore very thorough and aims to retain only recruits capable of shooting with such bows. The training followed, which begins at the age of 7, is long and complex:bone stigmata have been found (on the spine, on the fingers of the right hand, as well as on the forearm and wrist left) of this training on skeletons of English archers. Edward III instituted compulsory archery “games” on Sundays after mass, from which only churchmen and lawyers were exempt. The diligence of peasants and villagers, as well as their good equipment, are checked by the sheriff's representatives.
The selection is then made on the scale of the whole of England, which is covered with shooting ranges made up of mounds of earth 2 to 3 meters high and 6 meters wide, in the shape of sugar loaves. truncated. The truncated face receives a straw, canvas or leather target. Illustrations from the time also show targets held between two stakes placed in front of the clods. Stakes and bollards, or even papegais (long poles at the end of which feathers are attached), are used as markers to better get used to shooting at depth.
Origins
The longbow is said to have been known in Scotland as early as 2000 BC, but it was introduced to Wales during a Viking raid in 600. The first traces of the use of this weapon by the Welsh date from 633. Osric, nephew of Edwin, King of Northumbria, was killed by an arrow fired from a Welsh longbow during a battle with the Welsh, almost six centuries before it was certified as a military weapon in England.
Conquest of Wales
The rugged terrain of Wales lends itself poorly to the feudal tactic of massive heavy cavalry charges. Also the Welsh are one of the rare peoples of Europe to have preserved in the Middle Ages the tactics of pitched combat learned from the Romans[33]. Their army is very largely made up of infantry recruited from the population (in the event of war, any man over 14 years old and layman can be summoned once a year for a period of six weeks), to which is added a small cavalry including the king and his guard. The territories of North Wales mainly provide pikemen and those of the south archers equipped with the longbow. Bows are used for their piercing ability at close range and wreak havoc among English knights equipped with chain mail. The Welsh bow is made from white elm, a locally available wood that is unpolished and coarse, yet powerful. The adoption of this weapon by the Welsh dates from the end of the twelfth century:in 1182, at the siege of Abergavenny, a Welsh arrow sank 4 inches (more than 10 centimeters) into an oak door and in 1188, William de Braose, an English knight fighting the Welsh, reports that an arrow passed through his coat of mail, doublet, thigh, saddle and finally wounded his horse.[37] From then on, the English knew that this weapon made it possible to pierce armor, and the longbow was used in 1216 by English troops during the invasion of England by the future Louis VIII of France.
The Welsh avoid pitched battles and prefer to fight a skirmish war, harassing the opposing army until it finally leaves (the feudal knights only came to support their overlord temporarily, during the service of ost) . In the event of a battle, they seek to evolve in steep or marshy terrain where the effectiveness of the opposing cavalry is reduced.
From 1277, Edward I of England was at war with the Welsh and had to counter their guerrilla tactics. For this, he recruits Welsh archers (playing rivalries that undermine the unity of this people) who, as bribes, are present as long as the campaign lasts, unlike his knights. During the Battle of Orewin Bridge, on December 11, 1282, the Welsh pikemen were dispersed by the archers (also Welsh) in the service of England, then swept away by the cavalry of Edward I.
Scottish Wars
England took part in the Wars of Scottish Independence (1296 to 1357). Since 1296, taking advantage of the death of Alexander III without a male heir and an attempted takeover by marriage, England has considered Scotland a vassal state. However, the Scots contracted with France the Auld Alliance on October 23, 1295 and Robert Bruce (future Robert I of Scotland), during the battle of Bannockburn in 1314, crushed the English knighthood, however very superior in number, thanks to an army essentially composed of men-at-arms on foot protected from charges by a first rank of pikemen.
Drawing lessons from the campaigns in Wales and Scotland, King Edward I of England introduced a law that encouraged archers to train on Sundays by banning the use of other sports; the English thus become skilled in the handling of the longbow. The wood used is yew (which England imports from Italy) which has superior mechanical qualities to the white elm of Welsh bows:performance is thus improved. This more powerful ranged weapon can be used in massive long-range fire. The English adapted their way of fighting by reducing the cavalry but using more archers and men-at-arms on foot protected from charges by stakes planted in the ground (these units moved on horseback but fought on foot).
Edward III implements this new way of fighting by supporting Edward Balliol against the supporters of David II, the son of Robert Bruce. This tactic allows them to win several important battles. The tactical use of archers is gradually improving. At the Battle of Boroughbridge in 1322, Scottish schiltrons were scattered by the rain of arrows fired by Welsh archers. At the Battle of Dupplin Moor in 1332, the archers were deployed on the wings, giving a crescent formation and preventing shots from coming from the front and being deflected by the profile of the armour. At the Battle of Halidon Hill in 1333, the archers adopted V-formations which made it even easier to hit the enemy on the flank[. Thanks to this campaign, Edward III had a modern army, familiar with new tactics (he also experimented with the strategy of cavalcades, which consisted in plundering the country over enormous distances thanks to a mounted army), which forced the enemy to attack him and allows him to use his archers in a defensive position.
.
Hundred Years War
The longbow was used by the English throughout the Hundred Years War. It is particularly effective during the first phase of the conflict. At the Battle of the Lock (1340), the English archers took over the Genoese crossbowmen, using arrows with broad or crescent points which cut the ropes and immobilized the opposing vessels, which could then be approached one by one. The battle of Crécy (1346) is a real shock for the French:the Genoese crossbowmen are completely outclassed and the knighthood is rolled by the English archers (the horses are not protected and the armor is still largely made of chain mail). During the Battle of Poitiers, seeing that the first cavalry charges were broken by the archers and that the horses were too vulnerable to arrows, Jean le Bon had his men dismounted. The English cavalry then executes a turning movement and charges the vulnerable French, because dismounted.
After these two disasters, Charles V decided not to fight the English in open country any longer and opposed them with the tactic of the deserted land, letting the cavalcades devastate the country:at each cavalcade, the king ordered the country people to take refuge in the cities with all their reservations. The further the English advanced inland, the more difficult their supply; harassed by the French who set numerous ambushes for them, their numbers were quickly reduced to nothing and many renowned English leaders were forced to withdraw in order to avoid disaster (John of Lancaster, the Black Prince, Robert Knolles and Edward III themselves are victims of this strategy of Charles V). The rare pitched land battles against the English of this period, such as the battle of Nájera (where the 3,000 English archers crushed the crossbowmen and the Spanish light cavalry) or the battle of Auray, ended in French defeats. Charles V reorganizes the army, under the command of experienced and loyal leaders (like Bertrand du Guesclin and his cousin Olivier de Mauny) and engages in siege warfare. Between 1369 and 1375, the French took back from the English almost all the concessions made and the lands possessed by the enemy even before the start of the war, with the exception of Calais, Cherbourg, Brest, Bordeaux, Bayonne, as well as of some fortresses in the Massif Central.
Thanks to the civil war between Armagnacs and Burgundians which tore the kingdom of France apart after 1405, Henry V of England resumed hostilities. The longbow again played a decisive role at the battle of Agincourt (1415) where the dismounted French heavy cavalry was massacred by rains of arrows from English archers, despite increasingly covering plate armor. To try to balance the forces, the future Charles VII appealed, with varying success, to Scottish archers, who were notably massacred at the Battle of Verneuil.
In 1429, Joan of Arc had the cavalry charge before the archers could take refuge behind stakes and won a decisive victory at the Battle of Patay. Charles VII creates the ordinance companies and the franc-archers to have an infantry capable of competing with the English archers. But above all, at the end of the conflict, the longbow was outclassed by field artillery. Due to the superior range of the guns, the archers could no longer be exploited defensively:at the battle of Formigny, the archers had to charge to neutralize two culverins, allowing the French reinforcements to attack them from the flank. The impact of artillery becomes even clearer in 1453 at the battle of Castillon, where it is used massively by the French. The archers, already outclassed in range, also became so in point-blank firepower, due to the appearance of hand cannons:the English, having to rush to the assault, were chopped down by grapeshot.
Dans la dernière phase du conflit, une stratégie de neutralisation des archers anglais, dont l’entraînement est très long, est appliquée. Capturés, ils sont mis définitivement hors d’état de combattre par amputation du majeur avant d’être rançonnés[49]. Ils préfèrent alors souvent mourir plutôt que de se rendre et être mutilés[50]. Les archers anglais subissent de lourdes pertes lors des batailles de Patay, Formigny et Castillon et 90 % d’entre eux périssent[30], ce qui contribue, en partie, à la défaite de l’Angleterre. Cette stratégie est cependant aussi employée dans l’autre camp :les archers écossais qui ont participé à la bataille de Verneuil sont massacrés jusqu’au dernier.
Guerre des Deux-Roses
À la fin de la guerre de Cent Ans, le roi d’Angleterre Henri VI sombre dans la folie. Deux clans, les York et les Lancastre, vont s’entre-déchirer pour le contrôle de la couronne de 1455 à 1485. Les archers sont les principaux acteurs des batailles qui vont opposer les deux partis. Ils forment l’épine dorsale des armées des deux camps, mais leur présence ne suffit pas à garantir la victoire comme au début de la guerre de Cent Ans. Les belligérants sachant depuis la bataille de Shrewsbury en 1403 que les duels massifs d’archers longs conduisent à des massacres avec de fortes pertes des deux côtés, la stratégie est donc de contraindre l’adversaire à attaquer, ce qui n’est pas toujours évident car, contrairement aux Français à Crécy, il peut riposter avec ses propres archers et n’est pas obligé de venir au contact. À la bataille de Blore Heath, en 1459, le parti d’York simule une retraite pour faire charger les Lancastriens et remporte la victoire en usant défensivement de leurs archers. Le 22 juin 1460, ce sont les Lancastriens qui sont en infériorité numérique et qui remportent la victoire à la bataille de Northampton en utilisant leurs archers en position défensive. En 1461, à Towton, les Lancastriens subissent une sévère défaite car leurs archers ont le vent de face et sont gênés par la neige :les pertes des deux côtés sont très lourdes, entre 28 000 et 40 000 combattants selon les sources[53]. Le 4 mai 1471, à la bataille de Tewkesbury, les Lancastriens attaquent car ils subissent un violent tir d’artillerie, mais leur manœuvre de contournement échoue et c’est encore une fois l’armée qui est en position défensive qui emporte la victoire.
Le déclin de l’arc long
L’arc long est de plus en plus supplanté par l’arquebuse qui compense sa faible cadence de tir par la possibilité d’un tir roulant et tendu, utilise des projectiles plus légers, donc plus faciles à transporter en nombre, et dont l’usage ne nécessite pas une formation longue, ce qui permet de renouveler facilement les effectifs en cas de pertes[55]. Les francs-archers sont dissouts par Louis XI à la suite de la Bataille de Guinegatte en 1479 :manquant de cohésion, ils ont été vaincus par les archers anglais et les arquebusiers allemands employés par le duc de Bourgogne. En 1567, Charles IX remplace dans son armée l’arc et l’arbalète par l’arquebuse.
Alors que l’arc disparaît progressivement des armées européennes, où il est remplacé par l’arquebuse, puis le mousquet, l’Angleterre en garde l’usage, quoique de manière moins massive jusqu’à la fin du XVIe siècle. Si l’arquebuse a de meilleurs pouvoirs perforant et vulnérant à travers une armure à grande distance, sa portée est moindre et sa cadence de tir est très lente. L’arc reste pour un temps un appoint intéressant pour les Anglais qui ont de nombreux archers de qualité déjà formés, mais leur proportion diminue dans les effectifs. En 1577, il est interdit aux archers anglais d’apprendre l’usage des armes à feu. Mais à mesure que les armes à feu progressent en portée, précision et cadence, leur rôle se marginalise et, en 1589, le Parlement décide que les archers n’ont plus leur place dans les compagnies. En 1595 enfin, les archers sont convertis en piquiers et arquebusiers.
Impact social
Le XIVe siècle est marqué par la crise du modèle féodal. Durant la guerre de Cent Ans, la société évolue profondément. Cette évolution sociale est largement multi-factorielle et l’utilisation massive de l’arc long fait partie des facteurs poussant à cette évolution.
Au bas Moyen Âge, et jusqu’au XIVe siècle, les chevaliers sont les maîtres incontestés des champs de bataille :grâce aux étriers et aux selles profondes, ils chargent lance à l’horizontale, ce qui leur confère avec l’inertie de leur destrier une puissance dévastatrice considérable. Dans la société médiévale, la noblesse doit conjuguer richesse et pouvoir avec bravoure sur le champ de bataille; vivant du labeur paysan, le maître se doit de manifester sa largesse en entretenant la masse de ses dépendants.
L’Église a œuvré pour canaliser les chevaliers-brigands dès la fin du Xe siècle. À partir du concile de Charroux en 989, les hommes en armes sont priés de mettre leur puissance au service des pauvres et de l’Église et deviennent des milites Christi (Soldats du Christ).
Depuis le XIIIe siècle, le roi de France avait pu faire admettre l’idée que son pouvoir de droit divin lui permettait de créer des nobles. La noblesse se différencie donc du reste de la population par son sens de l’honneur et doit faire montre d’esprit chevaleresque, protéger le peuple et rendre justice en préservant un certain confort matériel. Elle doit justifier son statut social sur le champ de bataille :l’adversaire doit être vaincu face à face dans un corps à corps héroïque. Cette volonté de briller sur les champs de bataille est accrue par l’habitude de l’époque de faire des prisonniers et de monnayer leur libération contre rançon. La guerre devient donc très lucrative pour les bons combattants et les risques d’être tués sont donc amoindris pour les autres. C’est pour cela que, lors des batailles de Bannockburn, de Crécy, de Poitiers ou d’Azincourt, la chevalerie charge d’une manière si irrationnelle selon le jugement contemporain.
À l’inverse de cette noblesse dans le combat, arcs et arbalètes sont considérés comme des armes diaboliques et l’Église tente de les interdire au IIe concile du Latran. Cependant, elles ne disparaissent jamais complètement des champs de bataille et sont remises au goût du jour durant les croisades. L’utilisation en masse des archers porte atteinte à la fonction sociale de la noblesse (dont sont issus les hauts dignitaires ecclésiastiques), dont l’importance sur le champ de bataille diminue au profit de roturiers. Durant la guerre de Cent Ans, de nombreuses révoltes paysannes et bourgeoises ont lieu en Angleterre (Révolte des paysans) et en France (Jacqueries). En Angleterre, la formation de toute la population au maniement de l’arc est même une menace :durant la révolte des paysans anglais de 1390, ce sont 100 000 paysans qui menacent Londres. L’ordre social féodal est menacé :cette révolte est réprimée dans le sang, tout comme les Jacqueries. C’est d’ailleurs pour cette raison qu’en France, sous Charles VI, la noblesse demande et obtient la suppression des archers formés après décision de Charles V[55], ce qui vaut aux Français d’être à nouveau surclassés par les archers anglais à la bataille d’Azincourt.
Le mythe de Robin des bois héros, s’opposant au pouvoir arbitraire, avec l’arme du peuple, s’intègre dans ce contexte (de manière similaire à Guillaume Tell l’arbalétrier suisse). D’après les travaux de Rodney Howard Hilton, il naît dans la tradition orale populaire anglaise au XIIIe siècle, mais le personnage se façonne très nettement au XIVe siècle . Il défend alors les paysans contre le shérif et l’abbé. Or, à l’époque, le problème est de savoir si les paysans en procès ont le statut de paysan libre ou de serf, car dans le deuxième cas, prestations et corvées pouvaient leur être imposées à merci. Le shérif est celui à l’époque qui représente la force publique, donc la loi et l’impôt. Dans un contexte où, après la grande peste de 1350, le paysan devient rare donc précieux et qu’il se met à revendiquer une place plus importante dans la société, le shérif devient l’ennemi principal. Cependant, alors que le prix des produits agricoles et que les salaires montent du fait de la raréfaction de la main d’œuvre, ces derniers sont bloqués arbitrairement par le statut des laboureurs voté par le parlement anglais en 1351, ce qui entraîne un fort mécontentement. Le contentieux avec les abbés vient de ce qu’ils sont de gros propriétaires terriens et qu’ils appliquent leur pouvoir de manière souvent divergente avec l’éthique chrétienne qu’ils sont sensés défendre[66]. De plus, le crédit de l’Église est fortement atteint du fait du Grand Schisme d’Occident et des prédications des lollards qui battent la campagne en diffusant les thèses religieuses égalitaristes de John Wyclif[68]. Il n’est donc pas étonnant que les clefcs soient, avec le shérif, les principales cibles de la satire populaire. Au sein des archers anglais, les différentes classes sociales combattent côte à côte (à des grades certes différents)[69] et il est révélateur que Robin des bois utilise cette arme égalitaire. Plus récemment, des médiévistes ont mis de l’avant le rôle de la petite noblesse anglophone (gentry) dans la constitution du mythe. Elle formait la principale audience des ballades et la crise de la féodalité a été pour elle une période de perte de pouvoir par rapport à la grande aristocratie francophone (l’anglais ne devient langue officielle qu’en 1360)[70]. En Angleterre, ces forces sociales sortent renforcées à la Renaissance, alors que le parlement anglais et le protestantisme (dont Wyclif est un précurseur) deviennent prédominants.
Utilisation contemporaine
L’arc droit anglais faisant partie du patrimoine historique des Îles Britanniques, de nombreuses initiatives associatives (telles que la Royal Company of Archers fondée en 1676 ou la British Long-Bow Society fondée en 1951) ont permis de perpétuer son usage.
Le longbow est utilisé aujourd’hui principalement en tir sportif extérieur ou tir « nature », ou encore tir « instinctif »; plus rarement par les chasseurs, car il demande une pratique importante et ne permet pas les longues séances de visée. Il séduit les tireurs recherchant un rapport très direct avec leur arme plutôt que la précision. Car sa constitution d’une seule pièce lui donne la préférence de puristes. En effet, son tenant unique (sans écrous de fixation ni poulies) en fait une arme qui met en valeur les qualités instinctives naturelles du pratiquant. La fabrication étant artisanale, chaque arc est un exemplaire unique ayant ses réactions propres (les cernes et les nouures du bois varient à chaque arc).
Il existe encore quelques artisans fabriquant des longbows sur mesure. Sinon, le célèbre fabricant Martin’s en produit une gamme, ainsi que les héritiers de la fameuse marque « Howard Hill ». Quelques fabricants asiatiques sont parvenus à faire leur place sur le marché avec des arcs relativement peu onéreux, mais de moins bonne facture.
Le choix du ou des bois utilisés dans la fabrication influence l’âme de l’arc, mais aussi sa souplesse, sa résistance et sa puissance. La seule concession faite à la modernité, en dehors de l’emploi de colles et de résines plus performantes, est l’utilisation de la fibre de verre dans le contre-collage des différentes couches de lames d’une seule pièce qui constituent l’arc.
Le dernier « grand chasseur » au longbow était Howard Hill (doublure d’Errol Flynn dans Les Aventures de Robin des Bois, la ressemblance physique entre les deux hommes était frappante). Hill avait fait sa renommée avec les chasses au grand fauve, armé uniquement d’un longbow de sa propre fabrication. Il a tué un éléphant avec un longbow d’une force phénoménale de 160 livres, au moyen d’une flèche de 160 centimètres, afin de pouvoir atteindre le cœur de l’animal. Aujourd’hui, les tireurs capables d’utiliser un longbow de cette capacité sont extrêmement rares :les forces varient - en général - de 40 à 80 livres, certains arcs atteignant 100, 120, voire exceptionnellement 140 livres.