Elizabeth I (born September 7, 1533, Placentia Palace, London - died March 24, 1603, Richmond Palace, London) was Queen of England and Ireland from 1558 until her death.
Elizabeth was the daughter of King Henry VIII of England but her mother Anne Boleyn was executed three years after her birth and she lost her title of princess. His half-brother Edward VI named his cousin Jeanne Grey, which excluded Elizabeth and her Catholic half-sister, Mary, from the succession to the throne even if it contravened the law. Edward VI's will was ignored, however, and Mary became queen in 1553 and Joan Gray was executed. Elisabeth succeeded him five years later after spending almost a year in prison for his supposed support of the Protestant rebels.
Elizabeth I surrounded herself with a group of trusted advisers led by William Cecil to define her policy. One of her first decisions as queen was to establish the authority of the English Protestant Church of which she became supreme governor. This Elizabethan Settlement later evolved into the Church of England. Despite numerous offers, Elizabeth I never married and the Tudor line died out with her. As she grew older, she became famous for her virginity; she was nicknamed the Virgin Queen and this aspect was celebrated in many works of art.
She was politically more moderate than her father and siblings had been; one of its mottos was video and taceo (“I see and I say nothing”). Elizabeth I was religiously tolerant and did not seek to program persecutions. In 1570, the pope excommunicated her and authorized her subjects (Catholics) to no longer obey her and she escaped several plots. She adopted a cautious diplomacy and spared the great powers of France and Spain. It reluctantly supported several military campaigns in the Netherlands, France and Ireland which failed largely due to lack of resources. After the start of the Anglo-Spanish War in 1585, Spain attempted to conquer England and the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 was one of the greatest victories in English history.
The reign of Elizabeth I, referred to as the Elizabethan era, is associated with the flourishing of English theater represented by William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe and the seafaring prowess of adventurers like Francis Drake. Some historians, however, have qualified this supposed golden age and describe Elizabeth I as an irascible and indecisive sovereign who had more than her share of luck. Towards the end of his reign, a series of economic and military problems affected his popularity. Elizabeth I is nevertheless recognized for her charisma and her stubborn character at a time when the monarchs of neighboring countries were facing internal difficulties that threatened their throne. This was the case, for example, of her rival Mary I of Scotland, whom she had imprisoned in 1568 and then executed in 1587. After the brief reigns of her half-brother and half-sister (Marie Tudor), her 44 years on the throne brought welcome stability to the kingdom and helped forge a national identity.
Youth
Elizabeth was the only child of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn.
Elizabeth was named after her grandmothers Elizabeth of York and Elizabeth Howard. His father was King Henry VIII of England. The latter was married to Catherine of Aragon with whom he had several children but only Marie, born in 1516, reached adulthood. Desperate to have a male heir, Henri began divorce proceedings and approached his mistress Anne Boleyn. They were secretly married on January 25, 1533, and the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, decreed the royal couple's divorce on May 23. At birth, Elisabeth had therefore become the heiress presumptive in place of her half-sister Marie. She was baptized on September 10 and her godparents were Thomas Cranmer, Henry Courtenay, Elizabeth Howard, Duchess of Norfolk and Marguerite Wotton, Marchioness of Dorset.
After several miscarriages, Anne Boleyn was repudiated by the king and executed on May 19, 1536, when Elizabeth was less than three years old. She was declared illegitimate and lost the title of princess. Eleven days after Anne's death, Henri married the courtesan Jeanne Seymour but she died shortly after giving birth to a son, Édouard, in October 1537; the latter therefore became the crown prince. Elisabeth was placed in her residence and she brought her baptismal robe to the ceremony.
Elizabeth's first governess, Margaret Bryan, wrote that she was "as promising a child and as sweetly disposed as I ever met in my life". In the autumn of 1537, Elizabeth was entrusted to Blanche Herbert, Lady Troy, who remained her guardian until 1546. Catherine Champernowne, better known by her married name of Ashley, was appointed governess in 1537 and she remained the friend of Elizabeth until her death in 1565
; she taught him French, Flemish, Italian and Spanish. When William Grindal became her tutor in 1544, Elizabeth could write in English, Latin and Italian and under his instruction she progressed in French and Greek. After Grindal's death in 1548, Elizabeth was educated by Roger Ascham and by the end of her apprenticeship in 1550 she was one of the most educated women of her generation. By the end of her life she also spoke Welsh, Cornish, Scots and Irish in addition to English. The Venetian ambassador claimed in 1603 that she "mastered [these] languages so perfectly that each of them seemed to be her native language".
Thomas Seymour
Henry VIII died in 1547 and his son Edward VI became king at the age of nine. The deceased sovereign's widow, Catherine Parr, soon remarried to Thomas Seymour, uncle of Edward VI and brother of Lord Protector Edward Seymour. The couple obtained custody of Elisabeth, who moved into their Chelsea residence. Some historians consider that she faced an emotional crisis there that affected her until the end of her life. Seymour, who was approaching his forties but retained his charm, engaged in numerous antics with Elizabeth then aged 14. On one occasion, he entered her bedroom in a dressing gown to tickle and smack her on the buttocks. Parr, did not oppose these inappropriate activities, and participated in them on several occasions; she thus immobilized Elisabeth while Seymour tore her black dress "into thousands of pieces". However, when she found them embracing, she put a stop to these activities and Elizabeth was dismissed in May 1548.
Thomas Seymour, however, continued to plot to control the royal family and try to have himself appointed governor of the sovereign. When Parr died in childbirth on September 5, 1548, he began to take an interest in Elizabeth again and intended to marry her. The details of his previous behavior with her were revealed and it was too much for his brother and the regency council. In January 1549, he was arrested and accused of wanting to marry Elizabeth and overthrow the king. Elizabeth, who was at Hatfield House, was interrogated but said nothing and her interrogator, Robert Tyrwhitt, reported "I can see in her face that she is guilty". Seymour was beheaded on March 20, 1549.
Marie Ire
King Edward VI died on July 6, 1553 at the age of 15. His will, contrary to the Third Succession Act, excluded Mary and Elizabeth from the succession and named Jeanne Grey, the granddaughter of Henry VIII's sister, Mary of Norfolk, as heir. She was proclaimed queen by the Privy Council but her support quickly waned and she was overthrown after nine days. Mary entered London triumphantly with Elizabeth by her side.
This testimony of solidarity between the two sisters did not last long. Mary I, a devout Catholic (of Spanish mother), was determined to crush the Protestant faith in which Elizabeth had been raised and she ordered that all her subjects attend Catholic Mass; Elizabeth was obliged to comply in appearance. Mary I's initial popularity waned in 1554 when she married Prince Philip II of Spain, a Catholic and the son of Emperor (and King of Spain) Charles V. Discontent quickly spread throughout the country and many turned to Elizabeth.
In January and February 1554, Thomas Wyatt led a revolt against the religious policies of the hardline Mary I but it was quickly crushed. Elizabeth was summoned to court to be questioned about her role; she vehemently declared she was innocent but was imprisoned on March 18 in the Tower of London. Although it is unlikely that she conspired with the rebels, it is known that some of them had approached her. Charles Quint's ambassador and Mary I's closest adviser, Simon Renard, claimed that her throne would never be secure while Elizabeth was alive, and Lord Chancellor Etienne Gardiner worked to arrange her trial. Elizabeth's supporters in government, including William Paget, nevertheless convinced the queen to spare her half-sister in the absence of strong evidence against her. On May 22, Elizabeth left the Tower and was taken to Woodstock Palace where she spent nearly a year under house arrest under the supervision of Henry Bedingfeld. Crowds cheered him all the way.
On April 17, 1555, Elizabeth was recalled to court to witness the final stages of Mary I's apparent pregnancy, but when it became clear that she was not pregnant, no one believed she could have a child. child. King Philip, son of Charles V, who ascended the Spanish throne in 1556, recognized the new political reality and became closer to his sister-in-law. Indeed, Queen Mary I of Scotland, cousin of Elizabeth, could also claim the Crown of England. Now she was engaged to the Dauphin of France with whom Spain was at war; Elizabeth therefore represented a preferable alternative. When his wife fell ill in 1558, King Philip dispatched the Duke of Feria to consult Elizabeth. In October, Elizabeth was already preparing her government and Mary I recognized her as her heiress on November 6. The latter died on November 17, 1558 and Elizabeth ascended the throne.
Reign
During the triumphal procession through London on January 14, 1558, Elizabeth was cheered by the crowd and her open and cheerful demeanor thrilled the spectators. The next day she was crowned in Westminster Abbey.
Religious reform
Elizabeth I's religious beliefs have been the subject of much debate. She was Protestant but retained Catholic symbols like the crucifix and downplayed the importance of sermons despite their central importance in the Protestant faith. Compared to her intransigent Catholic half-sister Marie I, she was rather tolerant. In general, she favored pragmatism in religious matters. Elizabeth I and her advisers feared a possible Catholic crusade against heretical England. The queen then sought a Protestant solution that would not irritate the Catholics too much while satisfying the wishes of the English Protestants. However, it no longer tolerated the radical Puritans who demanded far-reaching reforms. Parliament then began in 1559 to legislate a new Church based on the reforms of Edward VI with the monarch at its head but with many Catholic elements such as vestments.
The House of Commons was broadly in favor of these proposals but the Supremacy Act met with opposition from the bishops of the House of Lords. Many bishoprics were vacant at this time, however, as was the office of Archbishop of Canterbury. Proponents of reform therefore outnumbered conservative bishops and lords. Nevertheless, Elizabeth I was forced to accept the title of supreme governor of the Church of England rather than the title of supreme head which many did not want to bestow on a woman. The new Act of Supremacy was adopted on May 8, 1559, and all officials had to take an oath of loyalty to the monarch or risk losing their position; the heresy laws were canceled to avoid a repetition of the persecutions practiced by Mary I. A new Uniformity Act was passed at the same time to make church attendance and use of the 1552 version of the Book of Common Prayer compulsory; the penalties for challenging or disobeying the law were not, however, excessive.
Question of marriage
From the beginning of her reign, it was expected that Elizabeth I would marry and the question was to know with whom. Despite numerous requests, however, she never married, for reasons that remain unclear. Historians assume that Thomas Seymour had discouraged her from having sex or that she knew she was sterile. She considered several suitors until the age of 50 and the last was Duke François d'Anjou, 22 years her junior. Even if, like her sister who was manipulated by King Philip II of Spain, she risked losing her power, a marriage opened up the possibility of an heir. The choice of a spouse could also cause political instability or even an insurrection.
Robert Dudley
In the spring of 1559, it became clear that Elizabeth I was in love with her childhood friend, Robert Dudley. It was said that Amy Robsart, his wife, suffered "from a disease in one of her breasts" and that the Queen would marry Dudley if his wife were to die. In the autumn of the same year, several foreign suitors crowded around the queen; their impatient emissaries launched into ever more outrageous speeches and reported that a marriage to his favorite would not be well received in England. Amy Dudley died in September 1560 after falling down the stairs and, despite the medical examiner's report concluding an accident, many people suspected Dudley of having caused her death so that he could marry the queen. Elizabeth I seriously considered marrying Dudley for some time. William Cecil, Nicholas Throckmorton and certain peers made known their disapproval of this union and rumors even announced an uprising of the nobility in the event of marriage.
Robert Dudley nonetheless remained a possible candidate for almost a decade and was made Earl of Leicester in 1564. Elizabeth I was extremely jealous and when Dudley finally remarried in 1578, the Queen reacted with numerous displays of antipathy and hatred towards his new wife, Lettice Knollys. Dudley nevertheless remained, in the words of historian Susan Doran, always "at the center of Elizabeth I's sentimental life". He died shortly after the defeat of the Spanish Armada. After the death of Elizabeth I, one of her letters was found among the queen's most personal objects with the inscription "her last letter" written by her hand.
Political aspects
Marriage negotiations were a key element of Elizabeth I's foreign policy. She refused the hand of Philip II of Spain in 1559 and negotiated for several years to marry her cousin Charles II of Austria-Styria. By 1569, relations with the Habsburgs had deteriorated and Elizabeth I considered marrying a French prince of the House of Valois, Henri d'Anjou and then his brother François d'Anjou from 1572 to 1581. This latter union was associated with a promise of alliance against Spain to oust it from the southern Netherlands. Elizabeth I seemed to take this possibility seriously and for a time wore frog-shaped earrings that the Duc d'Anjou had sent her.
In 1563, Elizabeth I said to an imperial emissary:"If I follow the inclinations of my personality, it would be a beggar and celibate much more than a queen and a bride". Later that year, after the Queen suffered from smallpox, the question of succession became a hot topic in Parliament. The latter urged her to marry or name an heir to avoid a civil war upon his death; she refused both proposals. By 1570, members of the government had become convinced that Elizabeth I would never marry or appoint a successor; she was accused of irresponsibility. Her silence nevertheless added to her own security because she knew that if she named an heir, her throne would be vulnerable to a coup; she remembered how “a second person, as I was,” had been used against her predecessors.
Elizabeth I's celibacy inspired a cult of virginity. In poetry and painting, she was depicted as a virgin or a goddess and not as an ordinary woman. Initially, only Elizabeth I made her virginity a virtue; in 1559 she declared in the House of Commons:“And in the end it will be enough for me that a marble slab declares that a queen, having reigned so long, lived and died a virgin”. Subsequently, poets and writers took up this theme and developed an iconography exalting Elizabeth I. Public tributes to the virgin queen from 1578 secretly testified to opposition to marriage negotiations with the Duke of Anjou. Elizabeth I insisted that she was married to her kingdom and her subjects under the protection of God. In 1599, she spoke of "all my spouses, my good people".
Mary I of Scotland
At the start of her reign, Elizabeth I's foreign policy towards Scotland was aimed at reducing the French presence in the country. She feared that the latter would invade England to place Mary I of Scotland, considered by many to be the heiress to the English Crown, on the throne. Elizabeth I decided to send troops to Scotland to support the Protestant rebels and although the campaign was a failure, the Treaty of Edinburgh in July 1560 removed the French threat to the north. When Mary I returned to Scotland in 1561 after more than a decade in France, the country, which had established a Protestant Church, was ruled by a council of Protestant nobles supported by Elizabeth I. She refused to ratify the treaty.
In 1563, Elizabeth I proposed that Robert Dudley marry Mary I without informing the two concerned. The latter were not convinced and in 1565, Mary I married Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley who could also claim the Crown of England. This union was the first of a series of errors in judgment by Mary I that enabled the victory of Scottish Protestants and Elizabeth I. Darnley quickly became unpopular and then hated in Scotland for ordering the murder of Mary I's Italian secretary, David Rizzio, and in February 1567 was assassinated by a mob probably led by James Hepburn. Soon after, on May 15, 1567, Hepburn married Mary I, which gave credence to rumors that she was an accomplice in her husband's murder. Elizabeth I wrote to her:"What worse choice for your honor than in such great haste to marry such a subject, who, besides other and notorious failings, has been publicly accused of the murder of your late husband in which you would moreover be involved even if we do not believe in this idea. »
These events quickly led to the overthrow of Mary I who was imprisoned in Loch Leven Castle. The Scottish nobles forced him to abdicate in favor of his son Jacques, born in June 1566, and the latter was taken to Stirling Castle to be brought up in the Protestant faith. Mary escaped from Loch Leven in 1568 but her supporters were defeated and she had to take refuge in England, where she had been told she could count on the support of the queen. Elizabeth I's first intention was to restore her to the throne of Scotland, but she and her council decided to be more cautious. Rather than take the risk of bringing Mary back to Scotland with an English army or sending her to France to England's Catholic enemies, they decided to keep her in prison where she remained for 19 years.
In 1569, a major Catholic uprising took place in the North of England with the aim of freeing Mary, marrying her to Thomas Howard and placing her on the throne of England. After their defeat, more than 750 rebels were executed on the orders of Elizabeth I. Believing that the uprising had succeeded, Pope Pius V in 1570 issued a papal bull called Regnans in Excelsis which excommunicated "Elizabeth, pretended queen of England and servant of crime" and released all her subjects from their allegiance to her. Catholics who continued to obey him also risked excommunication. The bull led to anti-Catholic proposals in Parliament which were nevertheless softened by the queen. In 1581, converting English subjects to Catholicism with the intention of freeing them from their allegiance to Elizabeth I became an act of high treason punishable by death. From the 1570s, Catholic missionaries from the Continent traveled secretly to England; many were executed and this led to a cult of martyrs.
Regnans in Excelsis gave English Catholics a strong incentive to regard Mary Stuart as the rightful sovereign of England. The latter may not have been informed of all the Catholic plots to install him on the throne but of the Ridolfi plot of 1571 in which Thomas Howard was beheaded in the Babington plot of 1586, the master- Elizabeth I's spy, Francis Walsingham, and the royal council piled evidence against her. The queen was initially opposed to Mary's execution but in late 1586 she was convicted of her guilt after the discovery of letters written during Babington's plot. Elizabeth I's proclamation stated that "the said Mary, claimant to the title of this Crown, has devised in this kingdom various things intended to injure, kill, and destroy our royal person." Marie was beheaded on February 8, 1587 at Fotheringhay Castle. After the execution, Elizabeth I claimed she did not order it and indeed most reports say she told her secretary Davidson, who brought her the sentence to sign, not to forward it. The sincerity of Elizabeth I's remorse, and her motives for asking Davidson not to enforce the warrant of execution, have been debated by her contemporaries and modern historians.
Overseas War and Trade
In October 1562, English troops occupied Le Havre with the intention of exchanging it for Calais which had fallen to the French in January 1558. The plan failed as the Huguenot allies of Elizabeth I joined the Catholic troops to retake the city and the English had to fall back in June 1563. After this attack, Elizabeth I did not undertake any further military expeditions to the continent until 1585. She nevertheless carried out an aggressive policy through her fleet and her " sea dogs” like John Hawkins or Walter Raleigh who attacked Spanish trade in the Caribbean and the Atlantic. She thus dubbed the corsair Francis Drake after his circumnavigation of the world between 1577 and 1580 and the latter later distinguished himself during his assaults against Spanish ports and ships (especially in the New World, from where the Spanish galleons returned loaded with gold and silver metal).
Shipping within the Netherlands
In 1585, Elizabeth I deployed an English army to support the revolt of the Protestant Dutch against Philip II91. This followed the death in 1584 of his allies Stadtholder William I of Orange-Nassau and Duke Francis of Anjou as well as the surrender of several Dutch towns to Duke Alexander Farnese, the Spanish governor of the Southern Netherlands. In December 1584, the signing of an alliance between Philip II and the French Catholic League by the Treaty of Joinville threatened the ability of the Duke of Anjou's brother, King Henry III of France, to counter Spanish domination in the Netherlands. Down. It also extended Spanish influence to the southern Channel coast where the Catholic League was strong and exposed England to possible invasion. The capture of Antwerp by Farnese in the summer of 1585 after a siege of one year imposed an English reaction and in August 1585, Elizabeth I signed the Treaty of Sans-Pareil by which she promised to support the Dutch militarily. The treaty marked the start of the Anglo-Spanish War which ended with the Treaty of London in 1604.
Even though she was led by her former suitor, Robert Dudley, Elizabeth I did not give her very outspoken support. His strategy of simply supporting the Dutch while conducting secret negotiations with Spain in the days following Dudley's arrival in Holland was the opposite of that of Dudley and the Dutch who wanted to wage an offensive campaign. He upset the queen by accepting the post of governor-general from the hands of the States-General of the United Provinces. Elizabeth I considered that this was a Dutch ruse to force her to accept her sovereignty over the Netherlands, which she had always refused until then. She sent a letter of disapproval which was read before the Council of State in the presence of Dudley. This public humiliation of his “lieutenant-general” coupled with his negotiations for a separate peace with Spain deeply undermined his support in the Netherlands. The military campaign was hampered by Elizabeth's repeated refusals to send promised funds to support her troops. His reluctance to enlist, Dudley's poor military and political decisions, and the Dutch political chaos led to the failure of the campaign. Dudley resigned his command in December 1587.
Spanish Armada
At the same time, Francis Drake had undertaken an extensive campaign against Spanish ports and ships in the Caribbean in 1585, 1586 and 1587. He carried out an attack on the port of Cadiz where he destroyed many warships gathered for the invasion of England.
On July 12, 1588, the Spanish Armada set sail for the English Channel with an invasion force commanded by Alexander Farnese. A combination of bad decisions, bad luck and the attack of English fireships near Gravelines on July 29 scattered the Spanish fleet which was driven back to the North Sea; only half of the Armada managed to return to Spain. Unaware of the fate of the Spanish fleet, English militiamen gathered to defend the country under the command of Robert Dudley. The latter invited Elizabeth I to inspect the troops at Tilbury in Essex on August 8. Wearing a silver cuirass and a white dress, she gave one of her most famous speeches:
“My beloved people, counselors concerned for my security have warned me to appear before my armies, for fear of treason. But, I assure you, I don't want to live distrusting my faithful and beloved people... I know my body is that of a weak woman, but I have the heart and the stomach of a king, and a king of England – and I don't care if the Duke of Parma [Farnese] or any prince of Europe dares invade the shores of my kingdom. »
The threat of invasion averted, the nation celebrated the victory. Elizabeth I's procession to a ceremony at Old St Paul's Cathedral rivaled the pomp of her coronation. The defeat of the Spanish Armada was a major propaganda success for both Elizabeth I and Protestant England. The English took their victory as proof of the favor of God and the inviolability of the nation under the leadership of a virgin queen. This victory was not, however, the turning point of the war, which continued and often took place to Spain's advantage. The Spanish still controlled the Netherlands and the threat of invasion remained present. Walter Raleigh argued after his death that Elizabeth I's prudence had hindered the war against Spain:
“If the late queen had believed in her men of war as in her scribes, we would have in her time torn a great empire to pieces and made their kings like figs and oranges as in ancient times. Mais sa Majesté fit tout par moitié et par d’insignifiantes invasions apprit à l’Espagnol à se défendre et à voir ses propres faiblesses. »
Même si certains historiens ont critiqué Élisabeth Ire pour les mêmes raisons, le jugement de Raleigh a plus souvent été jugé injuste. Élisabeth Ire avait de bonnes raisons pour ne pas accorder trop de confiance à ses commandants qui, comme elle l’écrivit, « étaient transportés par l’orgueil » dans le feu de l’action.
Soutien à Henri IV de France
Lorsque le protestant Henri IV monta sur le trône de France en 1589, Élisabeth Ire lui apporta un soutien militaire. Ce fut sa première intervention en France depuis la retraite du Havre en 1563. La succession d’Henri IV était contestée par la Ligue catholique et Philippe II; en outre, Élisabeth Ire craignait que les Espagnols ne prissent le contrôle des ports français de la Manche. Les actions militaires anglaises en France furent cependant désorganisées et peu efficaces. Peregrine Bertie, ignorant la plupart des ordres de la reine, erra dans le nord de la France avec une armée de 4 000 hommes sans remporter de véritable succès militaires. Il se retira dans la confusion en décembre 1589 après avoir perdu la moitié de ses forces. En 1591, la campagne de John Norreys à la tête de 3 000 soldats en Bretagne ne rencontra pas plus de succès. Comme pour toutes les expéditions de ce type, Élisabeth Ire regimbait à accorder les renforts et les fonds demandés par ses commandants et Norreys fut par exemple obligé de se rendre à Londres en personne pour plaider sa cause. En son absence, une armée catholique anéantit le reste de son armée à Craon dans le nord-ouest de la France en mai 1591. Deux mois plus tard, Élisabeth Ire déploya une autre force sous le commandement de Robert Devereux pour soutenir le siège de Rouen par Henri IV. Ce soutien fut peu concluant; Devereux rentra en Angleterre en janvier 1592 et Henri IV abandonna le siège en avril. Comme d’habitude, Élisabeth Ire manquait de contrôle sur ses commandants outre-mer :« Où il est, ou ce qu’il fait, ou ce qu’il va faire, nous l’ignorons ».
Irlande
Même si l’Irlande était l’un de ses deux royaumes, une grande partie de l’île était virtuellement autonome et Élisabeth Ire devait faire face à une population irlandaise catholique qui lui était hostile et prête à comploter avec ses ennemis. Sa politique était d’accorder des terres à ses partisans et d’empêcher les rebelles de fournir à l’Espagne une base avancée pour attaquer l’Angleterre. Lors d’une série de soulèvements, les forces royales appliquèrent une politique de la terre brûlée et massacrèrent les hommes, les femmes et les enfants. Durant une révolte dans le Munster menée par Gerald Fitzgerald en 1582, près de 30 000 personnes moururent de faim. Le poète Edmund Spenser écrivit que les victimes « furent acculées à une telle misère, que tout cœur de pierre se serait apitoyé ». Élisabeth Ire demanda à ses commandants que les Irlandais, « cette nation barbare et grossière », soient bien traités mais elle ne montra aucun remords quand la force et le carnage furent jugés nécessaires.
Entre 1594 et 1603, Hugh O’Neill mena un large soulèvement en Irlande avec le soutien de l’Espagne alors que les combats entre cette dernière et l’Angleterre étaient à leur paroxysme. Au printemps 1599, Élisbeth Ire ordonna à Robert Devereux d’écraser la révolte. À sa grande colère, la campagne fut un échec et Devereux rentra en Angleterre en violation de ses ordres. Il fut remplacé par Charles Blount qui mit trois ans pour venir à bout des rebelles. O’Neill se rendit finalement en 1603 quelques jours après la mort d’Élisabeth Ire et peu après le traité de Londres mit fin à la guerre entre l’Espagne et l’Angleterre.
Russie
Élisabeth Ire poursuivit les relations diplomatiques établies par son demi-frère avec le tsarat de Russie. Elle écrivait souvent à son souverain, le tsar Ivan IV (Ivan le Terrible), en des termes amicaux mais ce dernier était irrité par sa focalisation sur le commerce plutôt que sur la possibilité d’une alliance militaire. Le tsar lui demanda même la garantie qu’il pourrait se réfugier en Angleterre si son pouvoir était menacé. À la mort d’Ivan IV, son fils Fédor Ier lui succéda mais ce dernier ne voyait aucune raison de maintenir des relations commerciales privilégiées avec l’Angleterre. Il déclara que son royaume était ouvert à tous les étrangers et limogea l’ambassadeur anglais Jerome Bowes. Élisabeth Ire dépêcha un nouvel ambassadeur, Giles Fletcher, pour demander au régent Boris Godounov de convaincre le tsar de reconsidérer sa position. Les négociations échouèrent et Élisabeth Ire continua de plaider auprès de Fédor avec des lettres à la fois apaisantes et réprobatrices. Elle proposa une alliance, ce qu’elle avait refusé quand cela lui avait été offert par Ivan IV, mais le tsar refusa.
Méditerranée
Les relations commerciales et diplomatiques entre l’Angleterre et les États barbaresques se développèrent sous le règne d’Élisabeth Ire. Malgré l’interdiction papale, l’Angleterre échangeait ainsi des armures, des munitions, du bois et du métal contre du sucre marocain. En 1600, Abd el-Ouahed ben Messaoud, le principal conseiller du souverain marocain Ahmed al-Mansour de la dynastie des Saadiens se rendit en Angleterre à la cour d’Élisabeth Ire pour négocier une alliance contre l’Espagne. Malgré les promesses d’attaques et de fourniture d’armes, les négociations s’enlisèrentet les deux souverains moururent deux ans plus tard.
Des relations diplomatiques furent également établies avec l’Empire ottoman à la suite de la création de la Compagnie du Levant et de l’envoi du premier ambassadeur anglais à la Sublime Porte, William Harborne, en 1578. Un traité commercial fut signé en 1580 et de nombreux émissaires furent envoyés par les deux puissances. Élisabeth Ire échangeait des lettres avec le sultan Mourad III et dans l’une d’elles ce dernier avança que l’islam et le protestantisme avaient « plus de choses en commun qu’avec le catholicisme car les deux rejetaient l’idolâtrie » et il proposa une alliance. Au grand désarroi de l’Europe catholique, l’Angleterre exportait de l’étain et du plomb nécessaires à la fabrication de canons et de munitions vers l’Empire ottoman qui progressait alors dans les Balkans. Élisabeth Ire envisagea sérieusement des opérations militaires conjointes avec Mourad III durant la guerre avec l’Espagne et les corsaires anglais et barbaresques coopérèrent fréquemment pour attaquer les navires catholiques.
Dernières années
À la suite de la défaite de l’Armada espagnole en 1588, Élisabeth Ire affronta de nouvelles difficultés104. Les combats contre l’Espagne et en Irlande se poursuivaient et l’économie fut affectée par les mauvaises récoltes et le coût de la guerre. Les prix augmentèrent et le niveau de vie diminua. Au même moment, la répression des catholiques s’intensifia et Élisabeth Ire autorisa en 1591 l’interrogatoire et la surveillance des propriétaires catholiques. Pour maintenir une illusion de paix et de prospérité, elle se reposa de plus en plus sur le renseignement intérieur et la propagande. Vers la fin de son règne, la montée des critiques refléta une baisse d’affection du public pour sa reine.
L’une des raisons de ce qui est parfois appelé le « second règne » d’Élisabeth Ire fut l’évolution du conseil privé dans les années 1590. À l’exception de William Cecil, les hommes politiques les plus influents étaient morts vers 1590 :Robert Dudley en 1588, Francis Walsingham en 1590 et Christopher Hatton (en) en 1591. Les luttes de clans au sein du gouvernement, qui étaient restées discrètes avant les années 1590, devenaient de plus en plus fatales. Une profonde rivalité opposait Robert Devereux à Robert Cecil, l’un des fils de William Cecil, pour les fonctions les plus importantes du pouvoir. L’autorité personnelle de la reine s’affaiblissait et cela fut démontré par l’affaire du docteur Lopez, son médecin personnel; lorsqu’il fut accusé à tort de trahison par Devereux, elle ne put empêcher son exécution.
Dans les dernières années de son règne, Élisabeth Ire se reposa de plus en plus sur l’octroi de monopoles plutôt que de solliciter le Parlement pour obtenir plus de fonds en temps de guerre. Cette pratique entraîna rapidement la fixation des prix, l’enrichissement des négociants aux dépens du public et un profond mécontentement. L’agitation gagna le Parlement en 1601 et dans son célèbre Golden Speech du 30 novembre 1601, Élisabeth Ire déclara son ignorance des abus et gagna les parlementaires par ses promesses et ses appels habituels aux émotions.
Cette période d’incertitudes économiques et politiques entraîna néanmoins un épanouissement littéraire sans précédent en Angleterre. Les premiers signes de ce nouveau mouvement littéraire apparurent à la fin des années 1570 avec Euphues de John Lyly et The Shepheardes Calender d’Edmund Spenser. Dans les années 1590, sous l’influence de Christopher Marlowe et de William Shakespeare, la littérature et le théâtre anglais atteignirent leur apogée. La notion d’age d’or artistique de l’ère élisabéthaine tient essentiellement au talent des architectes, des poètes et des musiciens et assez peu à Élisabeth Ire qui ne fut jamais une grande mécène des arts.
Alors qu’Élisabeth Ire vieillissait, son image évolua progressivement. Elle était représentée sous les traits de Diane et d’Astrée puis après la défaite de l’Armada sous ceux de Gloriana, la reine des fées éternellement jeune du poème d’Edmund Spenser. Ses portraits devinrent de moins en moins réalistes et présentaient de plus en plus de symboles lui donnant une apparence bien plus jeune. En réalité, sa peau avait été marquée par un accès de variole en 1562 qui l’avait laissé à moitié chauve et l’obligeait à utiliser une perruque et des cosmétiques. Walter Raleigh avança qu’elle était « une dame que le temps avait surpris ». Cependant, plus sa beauté s’effaçait, plus ses courtisans en faisaient l’éloge.
Élisabeth Ire était heureuse de jouer ce rôle mais il est possible qu’elle ait commencé à croire à ses propres attraits dans la dernière décennie de sa vie. Elle se rapprocha du charmant mais irascible Robert Devereux qui prenait des libertés vis-à-vis de son pouvoir et elle continua de le nommer à des hautes fonctions militaires malgré son ineptie. Après la désertion de Devereux en Irlande en 1599, Élisabeth Ire le plaça en résidence surveillée; il fut privé de ses monopoles l’année suivante. En février 1601, Devereux essaya d’organiser un soulèvement à Londres. Il chercha à enlever la reine mais rassembla peu de soutiens et fut décapité le 25 février. Élisabeth Ire savait que ses propres mauvais jugements étaient en partie responsables de ces événements. Un observateur rapporta en 1602 que « son plaisir était de s’asseoir dans le noir et parfois verser des larmes pour pleurer Devereux ».
Death
Quand le principal conseiller d’Élisabeth Ire, William Cecil, mourut le 4 août 1598, son fils Robert reprit le flambeau et devint rapidement le chef du gouvernement. L’une de ses réussites fut de préparer la voie à une succession paisible. Comme Élisabeth Ire ne nommerait jamais de successeur, Cecil fut obligé de procéder en secret et il entama une correspondance secrète avec Jacques VI d’Écosse qui pouvait prétendre au trône d’Angleterre. Cecil entraîna l’impatient Jacques VI à se faire apprécier d’Élisabeth Ire. Cela fonctionna et le ton de Jacques VI enchanta Élisabeth Ire et selon l’historien J. E. Neale, si elle ne se prononça pas ouvertement en sa faveur, elle fit connaître son opinion par des « phrases voilées mais sans ambiguïtés ».
La santé de la reine resta stable jusqu’à l’automne 1602 lorsqu’une série de décès parmi ses amis la plongea dans une profonde dépression. En février 1603, la mort de Catherine Howard, sa dame de compagnie depuis 45 ans et la nièce de sa cousine Catherine Carey, fut un choc particulièrement rude. En mars, Élisabeth Ire tomba malade et resta dans une « mélancolie profonde et inamovible ». Elle mourut le 24 mars 1603 au palais de Richmond entre deux et trois heures du matin. Quelques heures plus tard, Cecil et le conseil mirent leurs plans en application et proclamèrent Jacques VI d’Écosse roi d’Angleterre.
Le cercueil d’Élisabeth Ire fut transporté sur la Tamise jusqu’à Whitehall par une barge illuminée par des torches. Lors de ses funérailles, un corbillard tiré par quatre chevaux portant des couvertures de velours noir amena la dépouille dans l’abbaye de Westminster. Selon le chroniqueur John Stow (en) « Westminster était encombrée de toutes sortes de personnes dans les rues, les maisons, aux fenêtres et dans les caniveaux venus voir les obsèques et lorsqu’ils virent sa statue sur son cercueil, il y eut des soupirs, des gémissements et des pleurs généralisés comme on n’en avait jamais vu de mémoire d’homme ».
Quatre chevaux avec une couverture noire tirent un cercueil où se trouve la dépouille de la reine portant une robe dorée. L’attelage est entouré de personnages portant de longs manteaux noirs à capuche qui tiennent des bannières avec les armoiries de l’Angleterre à diverses périodes
Élisabeth Ire fut inhumée dans l’abbaye de Westminster dans une tombe commune à celle de sa demi-sœur Marie Ire. L’inscription latine sur la sépulture Regno consortes &urna, hic obdormimus Elizabetha et Maria sorores, in spe resurrectionis signifie « Consorts sur le trône et dans la tombe, ici nous dormons, Élisabeth et Marie, sœurs, dans l’espoir de la résurrection ».
Héritage
Élisabeth Ire fut pleurée par beaucoup de ses sujets mais d’autres furent soulagés par sa mort. Le roi Jacques Ier portait beaucoup d’espoirs mais sa popularité diminua et les années 1620 virent l’apparition d’une nostalgie du règne d’Élisabeth Ire présentée comme une héroïne de la cause protestante durant un âge d’or à l’opposé de son successeur considéré comme un sympathisant catholique à la tête d’une cour corrompue. L’image triomphaliste qu’Élisabeth Ire avait cultivé à la fin de son règne sur fond de luttes factieuses et de difficultés militaires économiques fut prise pour argent comptant et sa réputation s’accrut. Son règne fut idéalisé comme une période où la Couronne, le Parlement et l’Église travaillaient de concert.
Cette image fabriquée par ses admirateurs protestants au début du XVIIe siècle a été durable et influente. Sa mémoire fut rappelée durant les guerres napoléoniennes lorsque la Grande-Bretagne menaçait d’être envahie. Durant l’époque victorienne, la légende élisabéthaine fut adaptée à l’idéologie impériale de la période et dans la première moitié du XXe siècle, Élisabeth Ire était un symbole romantique de la résistance nationale face à la menace étrangère. Les historiens de la période comme John Ernest Neale (1934) et Alfred Leslie Rowse (1950) interprétèrent le règne d’Élisabeth Ire comme un âge d’or et idéalisèrent la personnalité de la reine :tout ses actes étaient justes et ses caractéristiques les moins appréciables étaient ignorées ou expliquées par la pression qu’exerçait sur elle le pouvoir.
Les historiens récents ont cependant adopté une approche plus nuancée de la souveraine. Son règne est célèbre pour la défaite de l’Armada et pour les raids réussis contre les Espagnols, comme ceux de Cadix en 1587 et 1596, mais certains historiens rappellent les échecs militaires sur terre et sur mer. En Irlande, les forces royales furent finalement victorieuses mais leurs tactiques salirent la réputation de la reine. Plutôt que la championne courageuse des nations protestantes contre l’Espagne et les Habsbourg, elle est plus souvent considérée comme prudente dans ses relations diplomatiques. Elle offrit très peu de soutiens aux protestants étrangers et délaissa fréquemment ses commandants outre-mer.
Élisabeth Ire établit une Église d’Angleterre qui aida à forger une identité nationale et existe encore aujourd’hui. Ceux qui la présentèrent par la suite comme une héroïne protestante oublièrent son refus d’abandonner toutes les pratiques d’origine catholique au sein de l’Église d’Angleterre. Les historiens notent qu’en son temps, les protestants considéraient le Règlement élisabéthain comme un compromis.
Même si Élisabeth Ire mena une politique étrangère largement défensive, le statut de l’Angleterre s’affirma durant son règne. Le pape Sixte V écrivit :« Elle n’est qu’une femme, maîtresse de seulement la moitié d’une île et elle est pourtant crainte par l’Espagne, la France, par le Saint-Empire, par tous ». Élisabeth Ire fut la première Tudor à reconnaître qu’un monarque gouverne par l’approbation du peuple. Par conséquent, elle travailla toujours avec le Parlement et des conseillers dont elle savait qu’ils lui diraient la vérité, une forme de gouvernance que ses successeurs Stuart ne parvinrent pas à suivre. Certains historiens ont considéré qu’elle avait eu de la chance. Se félicitant de n’être qu’une « simple anglaise », Élisabeth Ire croyait que Dieu la protégeait et que le succès de son règne reposait sur l’amour de ses sujets. Dans l’une de ses prières, elle remercia Dieu que :
« [Dans une période] où les guerres et les révoltes avec de cruelles persécutions ont affecté presque tous les rois et pays autour de moi, mon règne a été paisible et mon royaume un réceptacle pour cette Église affligée. L’amour de mon peuple a été ferme et les désirs de mes ennemis contrariés. »