The phalanx (in Ancient Greek φάλαγξ / phálanx) is an infantry combat formation used since the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. BC in Mesopotamia by the Sumerians. Its best-known form is that which spread throughout ancient Greece from the post-Geometric period (7th century BC) to the Hellenistic period (1st half of the 2nd century BC). .)
This, generally made up of 8 to 12 ranks of hoplites, heavily armed infantrymen, in close formation advancing at a charging pace, evolves in its Macedonian form into a body of combatants ranged in 16 lines, more lightly armored but equipped with the sarissa, long pike of 6 to 7 meters equipped with bronze points at each end.
Having made the glory of the Greek armies during the classical period and then become one of the instruments of the conquest of Alexander the Great, the phalanx, a formation too rigid and incapable of executing a circumstantial maneuver, was supplanted by the flexibility of the Manipulative Roman legion of Samnite origin.
The Sumerian phalanx
It is in Mesopotamia, at the beginning of the 4th millennium BC. J.-C. that appears the Sumerian civilization and, if the town-states seem to develop during the first centuries in a relative calm, one attends from 3000 before J.-C. and until the unification of the whole region by Sargon the Great in 2316 BC. J.-C. to almost incessant conflicts, whether between cities or against external threats such as the Elamites of present-day northern Iran from the 27th century BC. This frequency of battles causes great changes for these States in formation, whether for what causes these wars or for the changes they generate.
Evolution of society
Recently, in fact, agriculture has been better controlled and makes it possible to meet the needs of a population grouped together in towns that can develop. This demographic concentration naturally has an impact on the government of these communities:the era of the tribe is over and from “clan chief”, the monarch or tyrant in power becomes “administrator”. This increase in food production also sees these leaders have income (food or financial, by taxation for example) which makes possible the establishment of a permanent armed force for the defense of the city and its territory but also to legitimize their power, because they are more loyal because they are remunerated. On the other hand, these trained soldiers are an undeniable advantage over less powerful neighbors who must be satisfied with citizens mobilized in case of necessity and hence the possibility of geographical expansion in order to control additional resources. It is no longer a matter of skirmishes to settle a dispute between neighboring tribes, but of planned actions:the appearance of "modern" warfare, like that of a professional army, marks a profound change in the mentality of the society being formed.
Weapon development
Constant conflict stimulates the development of military technology and tactics in order to maintain the advantage over the enemy, or at least not fall behind, on a level far beyond that found elsewhere. Thus, countries isolated from external aggressions such as Egypt (unified around the 32nd century BC) did not feel the need to greatly evolve their armament or their tactics as long as the adversary did not reach the technological level sufficient to represent a real danger. It should also be added that for this country the advance was made by technological transfer from Mesopotamia, such as the sword-sickle, popularized in the cinema by the pharaonic peplums.
The presence on the Sumerian battlefields of the club reveals the helmet, then made of copper, in order to protect the skull very exposed to this weapon. To counter this advance, the ax was used, which evolved at first with an original fixing system since it was for the first time hafted (which made it possible to strike hard blows), then, around the 25th century BC. J.-C., by refining to pass from a weapon of size to a weapon of penetration, approaching more the punch than the axe. From the danger of the arrows of the archers is born the "armored coat", a kind of cape in canvas or leather reinforced with copper discs which leads in reaction to a development of the bow which becomes "composite" around 2350-2250 BC. J.-C.:made of a sandwich of wood, horn and glued tendons, it is smaller, has a double range and a throwing force two to three times greater than the simple model. And so on, other similar examples that can be cited.
For two millennia, the Mesopotamian basin was thus, despite the tragic nature of the innovations, a formidable melting pot of technical and technological advances that would not spread across the continents until much later.
Standardization and the phalanx
Metals being relatively rare and expensive, they are especially vital for the arms industry and the monarchs subject this industry to state control. This results in standardization in manufacturing due to cost and homogenization in the troop corps. A superb piece, the Standard of Ur, visible in the British Museum and dating from around 2650 BC. J.-C., perfectly illustrates this standardization:battle wagons of the same model and infantry equipped identically with the helmet, the “armored coat” and the spear.
Although the cities are during the third millennium BC. J.-C. in a quasi-permanent state of war, the armed forces remain of modest dimension. If we refer to tablets found in ancient Shuruppak and dating from 2600 BC. J.-C., the kings provided for the maintenance at the expense of the State of 600 to 700 professional soldiers. At most, at the height of the reign of Sargon the Great (2334-2279 BC), we arrive at an estimate of 5,400 men who make up the core of the army. This base seems to consist of two main bodies that form the backbone of the forces:the wagons that disarticulate the enemy ranks by charging across them and the heavy infantry articulated in a phalanx that follows.
First representation of a phalanx on a fragment of the Stele of the Vultures
First representation of a phalanx on a fragment of the Stele of the Vultures
The latter has all its reason for being in this theater of operation:the fighters are indeed much more effective during a close combat by being close to each other, thus not lending their flanks to the blows of the opponent.; and in the attack, the phalanx, compact, has all the more chances of sinking into the disordered enemy lines by the passage of the wagons. A precious iconographic document, the Stele of the Vultures, exhibited at the Louvre Museum and made around 2450 BC. J.-C. illustrates the first historical evidence of a phalanx. In the register that interests us is represented the victorious battle of King Eannatum of Lagash on Umma in 2525 BC. J.-C., the formation being equipped there also with a homogeneous armament. The soldiers, elbow to elbow, wear the copper helmet, a large rectangular shield made of skins reinforced with metal discs supported at the shoulder and a spear held in both hands. It is reasonable to assume that this equipment is completed by the "armoured coat" and the ax (heavy weapon capable of cutting down an opposing front), here hidden by the shields. For compositional and artistic needs, this representation certainly does not reflect reality or in any case is not complete, perhaps in the depth of the phalanx which is here six rows, the width of the forehead being only partially visible (only five fighters). On the other hand, it is doubtful that the artist witnessed any battles, if only because he carved the tips of the spears of the different lines protruding from the first rank at the same level. This last point, however, brings us to two more interesting remarks. This illustration indeed already foreshadows the Macedonian phalanx which will appear 2,200 years later, at least at the front, and an estimate of the length of the spears (which must in the present rather be considered as spades) which equals at least that of the infantry sarissa to be able to overtake the first rank. A parallel with the Standard of Ur is essential here but without being able to draw any certain conclusion. On this piece 200 years older, if part of the armament is similar, we can notice that the formation adopted is not that of the phalanx. Is it because it was not used yet or simply because the soldiers are not in combat but lead prisoners to the sovereign?
The phalanx, a formation that requires training to keep its unity during movement combined with the cost of armament, seems to be reserved for professionals. The citizens equip themselves (or are equipped) more lightly, without a shield, with the sword-sickle instead of the ax or as archers and mobilized when a campaign is launched.
The hoplite phalanx in Greece
Appearance of the phalanx
A very elaborate outline of a phalanx is already known at the turn of the 8th century BC. J.-C. since Homer, in one of his anachronisms, gives us a description of it:
"Shield leaned on shield, helmet on helmet, man on man;
the maned helmets touched each other with their shining crests,
as soon as a warrior bent down, they were so tight. (Iliad, XVI, 215-217)
Tactical evolution, the phalanx took its final form in the 7th century BC. AD thanks to a set of events and improvements:
* Recent technical advances in weaponry
* Appearance of the aspis koilè (hollow shield commonly and unjustly called hoplon)
Round shield about 90 centimeters in diameter formed of a wooden frame covered with bronze and supported by the entire left forearm; it was not only provided with a strap for the fist, but with a bronze loop passed over the forearm, allowing to carry a heavier shield, to reduce fatigue (the shield no longer being carried at the end arms) and with better support. In addition to its defensive character, it allows at the moment of the shock, thanks to its new shape but especially its support, a firmer support to jostle the opposing lines and in the continuation of the fight an easier handling.
* Appearance of the Corinthian helmet, sometimes with a crest, made of a single piece of hammered bronze.
Here too, Homer, in another anachronism, shows us what this weapon must have looked like:
“At these words the illustrious Hector leaned towards his child;
But the child, against the bosom of his beautiful belted nurse,
Rejected himself screaming, terrified at the sight of his father,
Frightened by the bronze and horsehair plume that,
Terrible, on top of the helmet he saw agitated”
(Iliad, VI, 467-470)
We must see here the description of a model of helmet prior to that which appears in the 7th century BC. J.-C. and which was then made in several plates welded together, much less resistant during shocks.
* Policy
Governments of tyrants in certain cities of the Peloponnese. There is perhaps a relationship between the appearance of these and that of the hoplites and the phalanx:the latter could have knowingly favored the establishment of this type of government at the expense of the aristocratic class, or else they would have been the instrument of tyrants to establish their power.
* Cultural and economic development
With the advent of the Iron Age, during the first centuries of the first millennium, Greece experienced profound changes:myths and legends were created, the great sanctuaries (Delphes, Delos, Olympia, etc.) founded, a demographic increase pushes the populations to seek new lands to welcome them (colonization of minor Asia), the general prosperity enriches the farmers and the tradesmen.
This last element sees this class, free but not being part of the aristocracy, gaining greater economic and political weight within the cities. Previously lightly armed for financial reasons (the citizen pays for his armament) and therefore not very effective in combat, this class can therefore afford more expensive equipment ensuring better protection and extended offensive means. Moreover, this population had every interest in taking a more important and decisive part in the fighting in order to protect its lands and property. Finally, this military role was reflected in the political life of the cities (see Hoplite Revolution). It should be noted that, although generalizing throughout the Greek territory, certain regions such as Aetolia poor in natural resources will not have a phalanx of hoplites for lack of financial means.
* Appearance of the hoplite ([man-at-arms], from hoplon:[weapon])
This heavily armed infantryman, inseparable from the phalanx since it is in this formation that he fights, is the main force present on the battlefield. It too is the fruit of all the upheavals mentioned above.
Composition and tactics
Assault
Arrived at the designated place of battle, the troop of hoplites deploys in tight lines, shoulder to shoulder, left arm folded towards the body, generally in 8 to 12 rows.
Seen from the front, the hoplite leaves only a few parts of its body uncovered:the head is protected by the helmet with a horsehair crest supposed to give it a frightening appearance, only revealing the eyes; the trunk, from the chin to the top of the legs, is inaccessible behind the domed round shield (aspis koilè) which bears an emblem (the episema) identifying the warrior and his city and also has the function of repelling bad luck towards the 'enemy; the right side of the fighter is placed under the shield of his neighbour; as a second protection for the trunk, the hoplite wears a bronze cuirass which covers his thorax, shoulders and back, sometimes supplemented by a plate which protects his abdomen, elements which have undergone various evolutions; the legs, from the knee to the ankle, are covered by the cnemide, a legging made from a sheet of bronze; attached to a harness, a sword intended for the waist allows hand-to-hand combat; from this heap of bronze emerges a spear with a bronze tip too.
Constituting the main force in the field, the phalanx was supported by other troop corps:horsemen, who at the time still had only a secondary role, and light harassment elements, equipped with bows, javelins or slings. The latter, sometimes playing a decisive role (see the episode of Sphacteria), will be discredited for a long time, even banned during the Lelantine war, because they practice an unfair and inglorious fight. To this set is added the intermediate class of peltasts.
At the signal, the phalanx, a compact formation, advances at a charge step towards the enemy lines and causes for the adversary at the moment of contact the effect of a shock against a bronze wall bristling with points of the same metal, effect amplified by the thrust due to the momentum of the last rows. The assault at a run not only has the effect of inertia at the moment of impact, it also makes it possible to leave the lines in motion less exposed to attacks from archers and slingers. Only the Spartans adopted the march to mount an assault as described by Thucydides in his account of the battle of Mantinea in 418 BC. AD during the Peloponnesian War:
"After that they set off:the Argives and their allies advanced with ardor and impetuosity, the Lacedaemonians, they, slowly, to the rhythm of many pipers..."
( History of the Peloponnesian War, V, 70)
During the charge, the fighters who fall under the lines are quickly replaced by those of the following ranks, thus keeping the front line intact.
Disadvantage of the hoplite phalanx
One of the faults of the hoplite phalanx comes from the disposition of the troop that composes it:the warrior, with his shield slightly shifted to his left, leaves part of his right side uncovered which he protects behind the shield of his neighbour. . Thucydides explains to us the phenomenon that occurs during an engagement, here during this same battle of Mantinea:
“Armies, whatever they are, do this:they tend to deviate, in the course of their march, towards their own right wing; so that each adversary overflows with his right the left of the enemy; in fact, with the help of fear, each one squeezes his unprotected side as much as possible against the shield of his neighbor on the right and thinks that the closer one is joined, the more one is covered; and the initial responsibility rests with the first man on the right wing, who always wishes to hide from the adversary his lack of protection:the others follow him by virtue of the same fear. »
(V, 71, 1)
This overflow has a negative consequence for each party on its left wing:thus shifted towards the center, the end of the line sees its flank and its rear threatened by a possible encirclement maneuver that the enemy contingents which have overrun can execute. Dramatic possibility if we consider that the phalanx is a rigid formation intended to fight only on one front:the front.
Field layout
To remedy this problem, with more or less success, elite troops are placed on the right wing, generally local and which are supposed to have more heart in combat in order to protect their territory and whose mission during the assault to contain this drift.
We must not see in the phalanx a formation in a perfect rectangle like the armies of a contemporary nation of the Napoleonic era for example. Indeed, the line was composed, from one wing to another, of all the troops of the allied city-states arranged by contingent, each possibly choosing a different depth of ranks.
The oblique phalanx
Thus, if the hoplite phalanx traditionally spreads over 8 to 12 rows in depth, this figure varies according to the cities, in particular for the Thebans. Already in 424 BC. During the Battle of Delion during the Peloponnesian War, they organized their troops 25 rows deep against the Athenians and their allies. This provision is brought to its climax in 371 BC. AD during the battle of Leuctra which opposes them to the Lacedaemonians (Spartans) with 50 ranks deep. But the tactical genius of Epaminondas who then commands the Thebans is not limited only to this particular formation since it is also by an arrangement of the troops on the ground that he innovates. Against all odds, he places his elite contingent on the left wing, facing the opposing elite. Surprise and psychological effects:the Spartans do not resist the formidable thrust of the 50 enemy ranks. The left wing, seeing the right wing overwhelmed, was rerouted. Epaminondas will again use this tactic implementing the so-called "oblique" phalanx in 362 BC. AD at the Battle of Mantinea.
Training
Remember that at that time the armies were made up of citizen-soldiers who defended their soil, war enthusiasts who only took up arms when the city was in danger. War professionals were not hired until the Peloponnesian War (end of the 5th century BC), made up of barbarian mercenaries who formed light support troops and who did not take place in the within the phalanx.
Good physical condition is a prerequisite for sports games and competitions which hold a very important place in Greek society. The gymnasium is the place of predilection for individual training where athletics is practiced, the main discipline of combat preparation (athlon means combat), armed running and the dance in arms, among others.
Collective training, meanwhile, will remain very little evolved. It will be limited to the transition from the marching order to the formation of the phalanx and the sliding forward, by column, of the fighters to fill the space left by those who fell during the assault.
It is therefore not surprising to see that the phalanx, a rigid formation by itself, is not able to deal with any unforeseen situation requiring a maneuver of circumstance and which plunges the troops into confusion. Thucydides gives us an illustration of this during the battle of Delion in 424 BC. J.-C. where the Athenians, initially victorious, are routed by the appearance of the Boeotian cavalry on their rear:
"Now, the left wing of the Boeotians, up to the center, had the bottom in front of the Athenians... Thereupon there was a new fact:as Pagondas had secretly sent two squadrons of cavalry behind the hill , because of the difficult situation in which he saw his left, and as these had suddenly shown themselves on the height, the victorious Athenian wing, thinking of seeing a new army advancing, was seized with fear:from then on, on both sides at the same time... it was the flight of the whole Athenian army. »
(IV, 96, 3-6)
More than in training, individual or collective, it is at the level of discipline that we must see the differences in quality between the armies and it is in this area that the Spartans clearly stand out. Between Athens, whose model is followed by the majority of city-states, and Sparta, there are two radically opposed ideologies which lead to two behaviors on the battlefield.
In Lacedaemon (another name for Sparta), the citizens undergo from their earliest childhood a rigid and difficult training in which obedience predominates and where everything is done in common for the collective good so that the city survives, if necessary until self-sacrifice in battle. The most obvious example remains the episode of Thermopylae in 480 BC. J.-C. during the Second Persian War where 300 Spartans of origin (excluding allied troops) commanded by Leonidas, one of the two kings of the city, faced until death several tens of thousands of Persians in the final phase of the battle, although the situation was desperate, to slow down the enemy and allow the retreat of the rest of the forces. The Spartan epitaph is a good illustration of what the city expects of its citizens:
“Stranger, go tell Sparta that here
We lie, obedient to his orders. »
(Herodotus, Inquiry [detail of editions] [read online] VII, 228)
On the contrary, for the Athenians, any constraint of order is keenly felt because it undermines freedom. They give more value to personal initiative, individual potential and the inventive spirit of everyone. In these conditions, under the pressure of combat, a more relaxed discipline can only be a handicap in the face of a force that unites.
Unknowns of the battle
If the Iliad and the painted vases depict individual fights, it is to praise the great deeds of the heroes, source of inspiration and pride of the populations. The ancient chroniclers have left us no description of the actual course of the battles where the melee takes place. How does the fight unfold in the hours following the first shock? Does the fight even last that long or is it just a clash followed by a short fight? It is doubtful that after a while the phalanx will keep its formation stabilized. Does the battle then turn into duels? After the shock, what is the role of the rear ranks? Are there changes between the fighters at the back and those in contact? Contemporary historians can only formulate suppositions in view of the data in their possession.
The end of the hoplite phalanx is commonly placed as the main force in the field in 338 BC at the battle of Chaeronea when it is defeated by a Macedonian evolution of its form and structure. its composition.