While in Western Europe the Roman Empire was falling apart, suffering barbarian invasions and the formation of new kingdoms, in the eastern part of the Roman Empire the situation was completely different.
Since the 4th century, when the sons of Emperor Theodosius inherited both halves of the Roman Empire, the part situated to the east and with its capital in Constantinople prospered. For a thousand years, a mixture of Roman, Greek and Oriental influences created a civilization with original characteristics, whose greatest contributions were in the field of art and culture.
At the same time, starting from the Arabian Peninsula region, a nomadic people, inhabiting desert regions, began their expansion towards Asia and Africa. Driven by the words of a prophet named Mohammed, he invaded the Iberian Peninsula, leaving signs of his presence in the architecture and language of its inhabitants.
The Eastern Roman Empire:The Byzantines
The eastern part of the Roman Empire was also called the Byzantine Empire, as its capital was an ancient Greek colony called Byzantium. In the 4th century, under the rule of the Roman Emperor Constantine, the city was reformed and given the name of Constantinople. It currently belongs to the territory of Turkey and is called Istanbul.
The location of Byzantium, between Asia and Europe, allowed it an intense commercial development.
Far Eastern products such as silks, spices and ivory were resold in Western Europe along with local products (fabrics, jewelry, fine crafts). This great movement attracted merchants of all nationalities to the city.
Constantinople became the "capital of the East", housing a huge population, although the Byzantine Empire had other major cities such as Nicaea, Antioch, Salonica or Alexandria. Some of them were located in fertile regions and produced important agricultural items, such as wheat, or grapes for wine production.
The political organization had as its maximum expression the figure of the emperor, who, aided by numerous officials, commanded the army and led the Church, which called itself orthodox. The emperor was, therefore, very powerful and considered a representative of God on earth, even being portrayed with a halo around his head. With the local Church subordinated to his authority, there was an increasing distance from the Western Church, which obeyed the Pope. Later, these ties were definitively broken, and the Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church still exist today.
In addition to the rich nobility, merchants and artisans also had a privileged economic situation. Peasants, however, lived under a regime of serfdom and poverty.
The Age of Justinian
It was during the rule of Emperor Justinian, from 527 to 565, that Constantinople and the entire empire experienced their maximum splendor. During this period, North Africa, the Italian Peninsula and part of the Iberian Peninsula were conquered, regions that were in the power of the barbarians, having belonged to the ancient Roman Empire.
Seeking to maintain the tradition of Roman law, Justinian was responsible for bringing together the ancient laws of the empire in the Corps of Civil Law - also known as Justinian's Code -, which groups together four books:Code, a collection of Roman laws since Emperor Hadrian (117 AD. ); Digest:comments by Roman jurists on the laws of the Code; Institutes, a book for law students that summarized and studied Roman law; and finally the Novels, a set of laws elaborated by Justinian.
During Justinian's rule, the Cathedral of Saint Sophia was built, which combines the grandeur of Roman architecture with the luxury of oriental decoration. There were also sumptuous palaces and a gigantic hippodrome in Constantinople.
As decorative elements, magnificent mosaics and paintings were used.
Due to its size and wealth, the Byzantine Empire exerted great influence over the West. During Charlemagne's rule, for example, many sages, artists and teachers came from these eastern regions.
Also their religious left deep marks in some areas of Europe, for their work of evangelization of the barbarians, in particular the Slavs. For this reason, virtually all of modern Western Europe follows the Orthodox Church. Likewise, the alphabet used by the Russians - called Cyrillic - is an adaptation of the Greek alphabet, made by a Byzantine monk from Cyril.
After Justinian's rule, however, the Byzantine Empire slowly declined, with most of its territories conquered by barbarians and Arabs. It remained, however, until 1453, when Constantinople was taken by the Turks.
Characteristics of Byzantine Art
The fusion, in the same work, of characteristics such as the exactitude of measurements of a Greek artist and the meticulousness of an Oriental, defines, in general terms, Byzantine art. Regaining some elements from antiquity, Byzantine art adapted them to the more orientalized environment of an empire based in Constantinople.
The artistic manifestations of the Byzantines were closely linked to their ideals and beliefs. On the other hand, the inexpressiveness of Byzantine sculpture, relegated to the background, is explained by the prohibition of worshiping human images.
On the other hand, religious architecture occupies a prominent place, where the two sources from which Byzantine artists are inspired are evident. Antiquity is present in the preference for regular architectural proportions, both in terms of measurements and dimensions, although there were some gigantic works.
The construction of churches follows two models:the rectangular shape (Latin) or the cross shape (derived from Christianity). The oriental influences, in turn, are expressed in the abundant decoration of the interiors and in the great innovation of religious architecture:the domed roof, which is supported by four large arches.
The austerity that dominated the exterior of the buildings, therefore, contrasted with the rich interior decoration. The walls, ceiling and dome were covered in colorful mosaics - the Orient's fundamental contribution to Byzantine art. The mosaics were made with a very malleable mass, on which small colored cubes were applied, one next to the other, interspersed with narrow rows of gold and silver. Viewed from a distance, the ensemble takes on forms that usually represent biblical scenes, where the characters are even altered to appear more devout.
The emperor and empress were also represented in these mosaics as if they were saints, as a halo was placed around their heads.
Byzantine art covered a large area and can still be appreciated today in Eastern European Orthodox churches (Bulgaria, Yugoslavia and Turkey) or even in Ravenna, Italy.
Middle Ages
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