Few figures in ancient history have been as influential as Alexander Magno in the mind of emperors, kings, or strategists of the different historical periods. We can say that Alejandro had a dream and they lived the rest for him .
Alexander the Great, the young king of Macedonia (22 years old) departed from Pella, the capital of the kingdom in the spring of 334 BC, with revenge against the Persians on his mind , those Orientals who had caused so much damage to their Greek neighbors. In addition, with this he would get rid of the Persians the Greek colonies of Asia Minor, to give them back their supposed dream freedom.
For this he had an army created by his father Philip II. He was not the largest of all, at most 19,000 men on foot, that is to say his famous Macedonian phalanx dressed in the “ sarissa ”, a spear of more than four meters. Along with them about 4,000 horsemen and 7,000 archers. In addition to the “hetairoi ”, the elite body and personal guard of the king, with its members chosen from the Macedonian aristocracy. In front of them 80,000 Persian soldiers, between natives and mercenaries, in addition to the mythical personal army of the Persian king of "the ten thousand immortals". But the latter did not have the most dazzling personality that ancient history gave, Alexander the Great.
Reconstruction of the famous mosaic of Alexander the Great
Looking back, his army was the only thing the Macedonian leader had when he left for Asia. The Greeks never accepted him as his king, at the top supreme commander of the League of Corinth, also created by his father and in which there were notable absences like the Spartans. Nor was he well received in Asia Minor, cities like Miletus or Halicarnassus resisted the supposed liberator. But nothing stopped Alexander the Great, the battles of Granicus, Issos and Gaugamela elevated the greatest conqueror that history had known, his dominions reached the Indus River. Among the territories acquired, impressive cities such as Babylon and ancient cultures such as the Egyptian.
Eleven endless years leading his army took their toll. On June 13, 323 BC, (according to others the 10th of the same month). Alexander died in Babylon, poisoned, by malaria, or a victim of leukemia, although who knows if it wasn't all three. The truth is that the man died at the same time that the legend was born, historiography was tinged with it. His dream of a united world has been used by characters from all periods of history, from Julius Caesar to Napoleon, exalting the memory of Alexander the Great.
The birth of the Greek royal figure.
After the death of Alexander the Great a new political form will flood the world he conquered. Greek culture mixed with other ancient cultures such as that of the Middle East and Egypt to end up forming a series of territories, called Hellenic kingdoms, with defined characteristics, but also with their own personalities.
Curiously, the greatest political institution in the history of Greek culture will disappear from these territories. The Greek Polis , the city-state that controls a small annexed territory both from a political and economic point of view, will give way to great kingdoms. Where the old supposedly democratic power of the citizens will be lost forever subject to the designs of a monarch. The latter will become the powerful lord who controls everything, without a doubt the figure of Alexander the Great, the disciple of Aristotle is the main responsible.
Aristotle and Alexander the Great
The royal figure goes on to invade all the territories of Hellenistic society, becoming a Greek God and a Homeric hero. From that point on he is no longer at the level of the citizens, but at the side of the gods, therefore he will be seen as the savior and protector of his people. But it is also due to the same, so he will be at the head of the armies, the Greek king will become leader of the hosts. Who does not want to see the figure of the Roman emperors, in the vision of the world that Alexander the Great had, is that he does not want to open his eyes.
Greek cities as an urban model.
Another of the most interesting aspects of the world that Alexander the Great changed was the way of life of the conquered lands, both in terms of urbanization of the territories, and the composition of the new Hellenistic cities. These proliferated especially in the Asian continent, since in Egypt there were only two new Alexandria and Ptolemaida. Their first mission was to become military cities for the control of the territory, then the economic function of controlling trade routes and collecting taxes would come to them. But above all they became the showcase before the Hellenistic world, of the power of the new monarchs.
The lands conquered from the natives became available to the Hellenic king. This distributed the territories among the Greek settlers, who settled in the best cities, both newly minted, and those stolen from rivals. Those of new construction had the traditional hypodamic layout, and were equipped with all the public buildings; palaces, markets, agoras, library or gyms. All of them between huge mansions of the new officials at the service of the state.
Pergamon
Of all the cities, the one that best summarizes the new concept of the Hellenistic city is Pergamon. The city located in Asia Minor and very close to the Aegean Sea, became, with the successors of Alexander the Great, one of the most splendid in the Mediterranean. In its acropolis, the spectacular altar of Zeus, the Library and especially the Palace of the Attalids stand out, a true symbol of the Hellenistic tradition. After coming down from the upper area, its inhabitants were able to enjoy the most impressive of the gymnasiums, of all those that were given to us by the successors of Alexander the Great. As if that were not enough, the city was filled with artists from all over Hellenic corners, from sculptors, painters, mosaicists, etc.
The spread of Greek culture.
The reported cities were in charge of transmitting the Greek culture, it is necessary to point out that the Greeks chose the same ones to live in, while the rural world became the home of the indigenous people. The high economic position of the Greeks encouraged the approach to culture, but not only that, the important social change of distancing citizens from politics, brought mimes closer to literature or art.
They also had the patronage of the Hellenic kings, willing to surround themselves with the best prepared servants. For this they invested in the so-called temples of knowledge, libraries, museums, schools, or workshops flooded the new Hellenistic cities. Even if it is evidence, who can forget the Library of Alexandria?
With all of this, the way was cleared for the appearance of outstanding writers, among them the newly minted Greek poets. As well as historians who, in addition to worrying about the Greek past, introduced us to ancient peoples such as the Babylonians and especially the rich Egyptian culture. Philosophers, like the Stoics who would impregnate many later generations with their particular way of seeing life. Along with them were physicists, doctors, astronomers and impressive geniuses such as Euclid or Eratosthenes. In short, a world where ideas were not hidden and traveled without borders.
The distribution of the Empire of Alexander the Great.
This whole world, united by Hellenic ideas, had been dreamed of by the Macedonian conqueror. But he unfortunately he just couldn't get to enjoy it. On his deathbed, he made it very clear that he knew the future, and that it was also not very much in line with his wishes. The conquered Empire will never remain united, his last words foreshadow it; “my funeral will be a bloodbath ”. By the way, a very consistent phrase, with the decision of who was going to be the heir to the Empire, after being asked about this question he responded with a laconic; “the best ”.
In this way began the race to divide the Empire of Alexander the Great, almost five decades and two generations had to pass to put a minimum order in the conquered territories.
The first divisions of the diadochi.
The first generation of successors are known as the Diadochi, that is, the generals who traveled with Alexander himself. Their number was close to twenty, but not all of them obtained the same relevance in the future of the Hellenistic kingdoms. By the way, as he himself predicted, the ambition of his men led to the struggle for succession.
The first decision was to distribute the 34 satrapies conquered from the Achaemenid Persians. Each of his generals was entrusted with the administration of a certain number of them, but all the territories were still subject to the same person. The chosen one was Perdiccas , who eleven years before left with Alexander from Pella to conquer Asia. While a half-brother of the conqueror, a certain Philip, would take charge of the true successor of the Macedonian leader, the son who had not yet been born.
But it seems that the designations did not please everyone, especially the powers that were attributed to the regent and that could leave others without part of the cake. The first of the battles between them took place in Egypt, where the lifeless body of Alexander the Great had been transferred. Perdiccas was the diadochus who opened the list of deceased, betrayed by one of his generals in particular Seleucus , followed a few months later Cráterus.
So a second decision was necessary , this took place after the meeting of diádochos in the Syrian city of Triparadisos. From it emerged a new leader, the aged Antipater , an old acquaintance of the father of Alexander the Great and who seems to have never left Macedonia until that moment. In addition, one of the pacts that emerged that day gave control of Babylon, one of the most important areas of the Empire, to Seleucus, the youngest of the diadochi.
Nearly ten years of uninterrupted squabbling passed, but with little change regarding what seemed to be the main issue, the heir to the Empire. The next event that would definitely change the course was the appointment of one of Antipater's sons, Cassander , as satrap of the European part and therefore protector of the young Alexander IV. In the year 310 BC, Cassander ordered the assassination of the heir, it was the end of the dream of Alexander the Great, but the beginning of the Hellenistic kingdoms and the expansion from east to west of the particular way of seeing the world of the Macedonian king.
The last period of that fourth century BC, we witness the last disputes of the diadochi to definitively settle their kingdoms.
- Ptolemy it seems that he had the most placid way in Egyptian lands.
- Cassander he became strong in the old Macedonian capital, to rule over the original territories.
- Seleucus stood firm in the ancient territories of Babylonians and Syrians.
- Lysimachus he focused on conserving the territories that linked the two continents, namely Thrace and Asia Minor.
The last of them, Antigonus, he suffered worse luck as he was the victim of the last great battle between the diadochi. The Battle of Ipsos in 301 BC, where the last three, that is, Cassander, Seleucus and Lysimachus, divided up their territories.
Situation after the Battle of Ipsos
The turn of the epigones.
It is evident that not all the kingdoms knew the same succession rhythm, but the name of epigones designates the second generation of heirs of Alexander the Great, who remained committed to the fight for the remnants of the empire from him. At least until his death in 281 BC. of the last Seleucus diadoche.
The main focus of conflict was Macedonia, the homeland of all and orphan of a leader after the death of Cassander and the expulsion of his children. Two new protagonists will join the scene, Demetrio , the son of the deposed Antigonus proclaimed king of Macedonia by the army. Facing him in a kind of civil war, Pirro , the daring monarch of Epirus. The dispute is taken advantage of by a third party, by the diadochus Lysimachus who, after aligning himself with Pirro, managed to unseat Demetrius and thus continue to enlarge his kingdom, at least momentarily.
Demetrius
The last protagonist of the casts came after the disappearance of the last two representatives of the diadochi. First Lysimachus and then Seleucus left the list of Alexander the Great's companions empty and for the first time the borders of his empire were put in danger. Specifically, they were those in northern Macedonia, which were invaded from the year 279 BC, by various Celtic tribes. His savior Antigonus Gonatas a son of Demetrius, who will definitively establish the Antagonid dynasty in the Macedonian territories after his victory over the Celts.
In this way and after more than half centuries of battles, since Alexander the Great left Pella, the great Hellenistic kingdoms were established. Antigonidas in Macedonia, Seleucids in Asia and Ptolemaics in Egypt, will be its most outstanding representatives, and therefore those in charge of transmitting the ideal and the legacy that Alexander the Great left to the world.
There are many publications that can serve to complement this story, for example this one, a great summary of the life of the genius Alexander the Great:
More info:
Universal History II, the Greek world, Pilar Fernández Uriel, Ed. Uned, 2007.
The War for the Empire of Alexander the Great, Robin Waterfield, Ed. Gredos, 2012.