The archaeological site of Chichén Itzá It constitutes one of the maximum representatives of the pre-Hispanic Mayan culture. It reached its splendor during the Terminal Classic (850 AD-1000 AD) and the Early Postclassic (1000 AD-1200 AD) [1] , and is located in the north of the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. In it, buildings such as the Pyramid of El Castillo, the Great Ball Court, the Temple of the Warriors, or the astronomical observatory called El Caracol stand out [2] . Beyond the architecture, the famous metropolis hides a natural space that has always attracted the attention of everyone who approaches its surroundings:the Sacred Cenote . Due to the karstic nature of the soils in the Yucatan peninsula, there are no surface rivers, so the waters run underground and outcrop to the outside through the cenotes [3] , which were used by the ancient Mayans to build their settlements and ensure a source of supply [4] . In the case of the Sacred Cenote, its function was not reduced to hydraulic extraction, but rather became an important center of worship and pilgrimage from the Terminal Classic [5] and until after the arrival of the Spanish [6] . It was considered a portal to the underworld or Xibalbá, inside which dwelled beings belonging to the supernatural side [7] . To contact these entities and request the healing of someone important, the end of climatic catastrophes or other demands of special relevance, the inhabitants of the city threw material, human and animal offerings [8] .
During the 16th century, the sacrifices in the Chichén Itzá cenote reached the ears of the religious Fray Diego de Landa , famous for perpetrating the Auto de Fe de Maní, in which he publicly incinerated a large number of Mayan objects and codices, symbols of idolatry that he had to eliminate. Likewise, he is known for his List of the things of Yucatan, where he indicated that the indigenous "sometimes threw people alive into the Chichenizá well, believing that they would come out on the third day, although they never appeared again" [9] , and “they also threw in many other things of valuable stones and that they had precious. And so, if this land had had gold, this well would be the one that had most of it, as the Indians have been devoted to it” [10] . In addition to this, there are other testimonies from the colonial era that include references to the well-known outpouring of water:“reaching the mouth of that cenote, they throw inside at the break of dawn some Indian women of each one of those lords, to whom they had been told They asked for a good year or all those things that seemed to them, and thus thrown these Indians without being tied, but as if thrown to a cliff, they fell into the water giving a great blow to it, and at the point of noon the one who had to come out gave great Voices would throw a rope at her so that they could pull her out, and […] coming to her senses, she would say that below there were many men of her nation, both men and women, who would pick her up […] and she would answer if they would have a good year or a bad year according to the answers they received. the Indian did, and if the devil was angry with one of the gentlemen from whom the Indians were kicked out, they already knew that by not asking to be taken out at noon it was because he was angry with them and this person would not come out again” [ 11] .
The investigation of the Sacred Cenote of Chichen Itza
In the 19th century, after the rediscovery of the work of Diego de Landa or fragments of texts such as the one mentioned above, adventurers emerged interested in finding the supposed human remains and treasures that hid beneath the depths [12] . The American John Lloyd Stephens stands out, who, in 1843, after touring numerous archaeological sites, published Journey to Yucatan and described the Sacred Cenote as “an immense circular indentation, located in the heart of a rough forest, vertically covered, surrounded by thick trees on its banks and walls […] The water was greenish in color:a mysterious influence seemed to penetrate it in connection with the historical accounts that make the well of Chichen a place of pilgrimage, adding that the human victims offered in sacrifice were thrown there” [13] .
Four decades after Stephens' writing, the French archaeologist and explorer Désiré Charnay used two automatic drilling machines to dredge the cavity [14] , but the roots, stones and irregularities of the bottom prevented the continuation of his work [15] . The work was resumed in 1904 by the American consul Edward Herbert Thompson, who bought the Hacienda of Chichén Itzá and extracted with a mechanical shovel human skeletons and objects made of wood, gold and jadeite [16] . Between 1909 and 1914 he hired divers, who recovered so many valuable artifacts that the discovery was considered the most relevant of the time until 1922, when the tomb of Tutankhamun was located. [17] . Over time, Thompson gained a reputation as a looter, since he had been illegally sending objects to the Peabody Museum at Harvard University , financer of his campaigns [18] . In response, he was denounced by the Mexican authorities and they seized his land in Chichén Itzá [19] .
After several years, new explorations in the Sacred Cenote emerged, but they were not successful. The first one was developed in 1954 by divers from the Frogmen's Club of Mexico, although they soon abandoned their pretensions due to the complicated visibility due to the turbidity of the water [20] . Another company that was also unsuccessful was the one directed in 1961 by the researcher William Joseph Folan Higgins together with the National Institute of Anthropology and History, and the National Geographic Society [21] , who extracted materials with a suction hose, but the little obtained was damaged [22] . Already between 1967 and 1968, the situation changed completely. The archaeologist Román Piña Chan [23] , after a failed attempt to drain the cenote using bombs, decided to apply another methodology and divide its interior into quadrants marked by buoys to record the objects, in addition to using chemical substances to improve underwater visibility [24] . Thus, he managed to document numerous artifacts and human bones , protected today in the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City, and in the Regional Museum of Anthropology in Mérida, in Yucatán [25] . Among the material culture, the fragments of ceramic vessels of a utilitarian nature and dating from the Terminal Classic are interesting, since they demonstrate a use of the cenote as a source of supply or even a dump. During the extraction works, elements made with perishable materials preserved thanks to the special conditions of the bed, such as the lack of oxygen, the absence of light and the accumulation of fine sediments, were also discovered. Textile fragments, weapons, idols, scepters and weaving tools made of wood stand out [26] , cordage and basketry [27] , remains of copal, an incense used by the Mayans to contact the deities through the smoke that was generated after burning it [28] , and sumptuous objects with a chronology ranging from 800 A.D. to 1539 AD [29] .
Findings in the Sacred Cenote of Chichen Itza
Focusing on the latter, we must mention the earrings, beads, nose rings, ear rings and plaques made of jadeite, a mineral with a greenish hue extracted in the Motagua Valley, in Guatemala [30] ; animal bones with hieroglyphic inscriptions; vessels with polychrome scenes; tools carved in obsidian from the volcanic areas of central Mexico [31] ; artifacts decorated with turquoise native to the southwestern United States [32] ; and figurines, disks with mythological scenes, necklaces, rings, bracelets, earrings and bells made of copper, gold and an alloy between the two called tumbaga. The presence of metals drew a lot of attention, since they are very scarce in the Mayan area [33] . Chemical analyzes revealed that they were native to Colombia, Honduras, Panama, Guatemala, Costa Rica, Oaxaca, the Valley of Mexico and Chiapas, which demonstrates the existence of commercial networks and the fame of the Sacred Cenote as a center of pilgrimage. Considering the style of certain objects, such as discs, it can be seen that they were manufactured in Chichen Itza itself, melting gold of foreign origin. Of all the metallic elements present, the most abundant are the copper bells, which could be associated with the cult of the god of death Ah Puch or Yum Kimil, who appears ornamented with them in the images preserved in the codices [34] . Another notable find was the skull-censer of a decapitated man with the crown cut off, copal residue on the face, polychrome wooden disks in the eye area, and resin along with green stones inside the skull. In addition, he suffered from Paget's disease [35] , which causes bone tissue not to regenerate properly and causes deformations, fractures and abnormal growth in the affected bones [36] .
Regarding human skeletons extracted in the Sacred Cenote, about two hundred individuals have been counted [37] . Formerly, the belief that most of the sacrificed victims were virgin women was widespread, but the analyzes carried out from the 1940s showed that the corpses belonged to both the male and female sex, and even the child population stood out, with children between the ages of three and twelve. Likewise, specialists have reported changes of cultural origin, highlighting the work of the anthropologist Lane Anderson Beck , who in 1990 observed cuts on the chins of some subjects, originating after trying to skin them, and a rib with a cut caused during the extraction of the heart or death by arrow [38] . The physical anthropologist Vera Tiesler Blos should also be mentioned. , who between 1993 and 1999 identified that most of the skulls had cephalic modifications [39] . It was a very common tradition among the Mayans, [40] and served to demonstrate social integration and link with the cosmos, since certain cranial forms emulated those of gods such as the god of corn or commerce [41] . Among the sample, the alterations consisted of slight flattening in the frontal and occipital bones, or oblique, cubic, and tabular erect patterns [42] .
Another investigation into the human remains was carried out in 2006 by the underwater archaeologist and anthropologist Guillermo de Anda Alanís , who noted root marks on several bones, which would imply that some of the bodies were previously buried in solid ground, but were later exhumed and relocated. This fact shows that not all individuals were sacrificed, but rather that the cenote became on certain occasions a funerary space, like an aquatic cemetery . On the other hand, De Anda was able to confirm, like Beck, the existence of signs of violence, located through triangular cuts in the ribs and produced during the heart removal process; and perhaps indications of ritual cannibalism, since disarticulation and skinning marks were documented, and certain cremated bones [43] .
It seems that the custom of offering human beings to the depths of the Sacred Cenote arose during the Postclassic Period [44] , in an attempt to get the gods and other supernatural beings to put an end to the extreme droughts that devastated the Yucatan Peninsula since the 9th century, and whose effects increased between the 10th and 11th centuries [45] . The recovered bone remains allow us to notice the practice of various modalities at the time of giving death. However, the signs of violence do not exceed twelve percent of the total number of people analyzed, which could indicate that most of the subjects died by drowning, since this way of dying leaves no trace on the skeleton. Finally, regarding the predilection for choosing children as victims, it could perhaps be because the Maya considered them individuals who still embodied purity and who still maintained certain connections with the other world. Thus, just as they threw objects of great value and rarity, they offered the life of infants to the cosmic entities, which, with their crying, would in turn help to attract the rain.
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Notes
[1] Junta de Andalucía and Center for Mayan Studies of the Institute of Philological Research of the UNAM (2010):Mayas:Architecture and landscape guide. Mexico City and Seville:Junta de Andalucía, Ministry of Public Works and Housing and National Autonomous University of Mexico, p. 400.
[2] Wren, L.H. (1989):“Chichén Itzá:The site and its people”, in Coggins, C.C. and Shane, O.C.:El Cenote de los Sacrificios. Mayan treasures extracted from the Sacred Cenote of Chichen Itza. Mexico City:Economic Culture Fund, pp. 15 – 16.
[3] VV.AA. (2002):"The cenotes of the Yucatan Peninsula", in De La Lanza Espino, G. and García Calderón, J.L.:Lakes and dams of Mexico. Mexico City:AGT Editor, pp. 337 – 339.
[4] Beddows, P.; Blanchon, P.:Escobar, E. and Torres – Talante, O. (2007):“The cenotes of the Yucatan Peninsula”, in VV.AA.:Arqueología Mexicana vol. XIV, no. 83. Cenotes in the Mayan area . Mexico City:Editorial Raíces, p. 31.
[5] Badillo Sánchez, A. (2020):“Ancient spaces of identity:Mayan cenotes as an axis in the social construction of the landscape”, in García Targa, J. y Martín Medina, G.G.:Archaeology of the Maya, 5. The Mayan urban landscape:from the Preclassic to the Viceroyalty. Oxford:BAR Publishing, p. 149.
[6] Nájera Coronado, M.I. (2002):“Rituals and religious men”, in De La Garza Camino, M. and Nájera Coronado, M.I. (Eds.):Maya Religion. Madrid:Editorial Trotta, p. 121.
[7] Melgar Tísoc, E.R. (2004):"Chik'In Dzonot and Actun Xibalbá:symbolic geographies of death around bodies of water", in Cobos Palma, R. (Coord.):Funerary cult in Mayan society. Memory of the Fourth Round Table of Palenque. Mexico City:National Institute of Anthropology and History, pp. 570 – 571.
[8] Nájera Coronado, M.I. (2003):"Human sacrifice among the Mayans in the colony", in VV.AA.:Mexican Archeology vol. XI, no. 63. Human sacrifice. Mexico City:Editorial Raíces, pp. 64 – 66.
[9] De Landa Calderón, D. (1985):List of the things of Yucatan. Edition by Miguel Rivera Dorado. Madrid:Information and Magazines S.A., p. 91.
[10] Ibid , p. 157.
[11] De La Garza Camino, M. (Ed.) (1983):Historical-geographical relations of the government of Yucatán (Mérida, Valladolid and Tabasco) , vol. I. Mexico City:National Autonomous University of Mexico, p. 38.
[12] Pedroza Fuentes, L. (2010):“Cenotes and flooded caves in the Yucatan Peninsula. From the first settlers to the Caste War”, in VV.AA.:Arqueología Mexicana, vol. XVIII, no. 105. Underwater archeology in oceans, lakes and cenotes. Three decades of exploration in Mexico . Mexico City:Editorial Raíces, p. 48.
[13] Stephens, J.Y. (1989):Journey to Yucatan, vol. 2. Edition by Juan Luis Bonor. Madrid, History 16, p. 240.
[14] Pedroza Fuentes, L. (2010):“Cenotes and flooded caves in the Yucatan Peninsula. From the first settlers to the Caste War”, in VV.AA.:Arqueología Mexicana, vol. XVIII, no. 105. Underwater archeology in… op. cit., p. 48.
[15] Martos López, L.A. and Del Rio Lara, O.A. (2018):“The sacred waters. Archeology of the cenotes of Yucatan (Mexico)”, in VV.AA.:D&M América, no. 19. Plasenzuela:Audio &Visual Factory, p. 17
[16] VV.AA. (1988):The great discoveries of Archaeology, vol. 10. Barcelona:Planeta-De Agostini, p. 180.
[17] Pugés, O. (2014):“E.H. Thompson. Decipher the Mayan code”, in VV.AA.:Clío:Revista de Historia, no. 18. Barcelona:MC Editions, p. 27.
[18] Palacios, G. (2017):“The dredging of the sacred cenote of Chichén Itzá 1904 – 1914”, in El Colegio de México:Historia Mexicana, vol. 67, no. 2. Mexico City:El Colegio de México A.C., p. 659.
[19] Barrera Rubio, A. (2015):In search of the ancient Maya. History of Archeology in Yucatan. Merida:Editorial Dante, p. 45.
[20] Guzmán Peredo, M. (1972):“The Sacred Cenote of Chichén Itzá”, in VV.AA.:Artes de México, no. 152. Underwater Archaeology. Mexico City:Comercial Nadrosa S.A., p. 30.
[21] Coggins, C.C. (1992):“Dredging the Cenote”, in Coggins, C.C. (Ed.):Artifacts from the Cenote of Sacrifice, Chichen Itza, Yucatan. Cambridge:Harvard University Press, p. 27.
[22] Martos López, L.A. and Del Rio Lara, O.A. (2018):“The sacred waters. Archeology of the cenotes of Yucatan (Mexico)”, in VV.AA.:D&M América, no. 19… op. cit., p. 17.
[23] Barrera Rubio, A. (2015):In search of the ancient Maya. History of… op. cit., p. 71.
[24] Cobos Palma, R. (2007):“The Sacred Cenote of Chichén Itzá, Yucatán”, in VV.AA.:Arqueología Mexicana vol. XIV, no. 83. Cenotes in the Mayan area. Mexico City:Editorial Raíces, pp. 52 – 53.
[25] Martos López, L.A. and Del Rio Lara, O.A. (2018):“The sacred waters. Archeology of the cenotes of Yucatan (Mexico)”, in VV.AA.:D&M América, no. 19… op. cit., p. 19.
[26] Coggins, C.C. (1989):"The Cenote of the Sacrifices", in Coggins, C.C. and Shane, O.C.:El Cenote de los Sacrificios. Mayan treasures extracted from the Sacred Cenote of Chichen Itza. Mexico City:Economic Culture Fund, p. 28.
[27] Coggins, C.C.:“Dredging the Cenote”, in Coggins, C.C. (Ed.):Artifacts from the Cenote of… op. cit., p. 91.
[28] Coggins, C.C. (1989):"A ceremonial grouping of the region", in COGGINS, C.C. and SHANE, O.C.:El Cenote de los Sacrificios. Mayan treasures extracted from the Sacred Cenote of Chichen Itza. Mexico City:Economic Culture Fund, p. 133.
[29] Ibid, p. 33.
[30] Proskouriakoff, T. (1974):Jades from the Cenote of Sacrifice, Chichen Itza, Yucatan. Cambridge:Harvard University Press, p. 8.
[31]Ibid , p. 102 – 107.
[32] Taladoire, É. (2005):The Mayans. Barcelona:Blume, p. 155.
[33] Doyle, J.A. (2017):“The gold in the mouth of the centipede. The Central American artifacts of the Sacred Cenote of Chichén Itzá”, in VV.AA.:Arqueología Mexicana, vol. XXIV, no. 144. Gold in Mesoamerica. Mexico City:Editorial Raíces, pp. 42 – 43.
[34] Sharer, R.J. (1998):The Mayan Civilization. Mexico City:Economic Culture Fund, pp. 682 – 683.
[35] Melgar Tísoc, E. (2004):“Chik'In Dzonot and Actun Xibalbá:symbolic geographies of death around bodies of water”, in Cobos Palma, R. (Coord.):Funeral cult in the Mayan society. Memory of the Fourth Round Table of Palenque. Mexico City:National Institute of Anthropology and History, pp. 574 – 575.
[36] Cuesta Castellano, J.A. (2013):"Chapter 25. Paget's disease of bone", in VV.AA.:Rheumatic Diseases:SVR Update. Valencia:Valencian Society of Rheumatology, p. 443.
[37] Douglas Price, T., Tiesler Blos, V. and Freiwald, C. (2019):“Place of origin of the sacrificial victims in the Sacred Cenote, Chichén Itzá, México”, in The American Association of Physical Anthropologists:American Journal of Physical Anthropology, vol. 170, no. 1. Alexandria:United States National Science Foundation, p. 4.
[38] Beck, L.A. and Sievert, A.K. (2005):“Mortuary Pathways Leading to the Cenote at Chichén Itzá”, in Rakita, G.F.M.; Buikstra, J.E.; Beck, L.A. and Williams S.R. (Eds.):Interacting with the Dead:Perspectives on Mortuary Archeology for the New Millenium. Gainesville:University Press of Florida, pp. 291 – 302.
[39] Tiesler Blos, V. (2005):“What Can the Bones Really Tell Us? The Study of Human Skeletal Remains From Cenotes”, in Prufer, K.M. and Brady, J.E.:Stone Houses and Earth Lords. Maya Religion in the Cave Context. Colorado:University Press of Colorado, pp. 350 – 352.
[40] Tiesler Blos, V. (2012):Transforming in Maya. Cephalic modeling among the pre-Hispanic and colonial Maya. Mexico City:Anthropological Research Institute of the National Autonomous University of Mexico, p. 69.
[41] Tiesler Blos, V. and Zabala Aguirre, P. (2011):“The artificial modeling of the head during the Colony. A Mayan tradition in the mirror of historical sources”, in VV.AA.:Studies of the Mayan Culture, vol. XXXVIII. Mexico City:Institute of Philological Research of the National Autonomous University of Mexico, pp. 77 – 78.
[42] Tiesler Blos, V. (2005):“What Can the Bones Really Tell Us? The Study of Human Skeletal Remains From Cenotes”, in PRUFER, K.M. and BRADY, J.E.:Stone Houses and Earth Lords. Maya Religion in… op. cit., p. 352.
[43] De Anda Alanís, G. (2007):“The bones of the Sacred Cenote. Chichén Itzá, Yucatán”, in VV.AA.:Arqueología Mexicana vol. XIV, no. 83. Cenotes in the Mayan area. Mexico City:Editorial Raíces, pp. 55 – 56.
[44] Cobos Palma, R.; De Anda Alanís, G. and García Sedano, D. (2016):“Underwater archeology in a context of the Terminal Classic:the Cenote Holtún of Chichén Itzá, in Cobos Palma, R. (Ed.):Arqueología en Chichén Itzá:new explanations. Merida:Editions of the Autonomous University of Yucatan, p. 256.
[45] Cobos Palma, R.; De Anda Alanís, G. and García Moll, R. (2014):“Ancient Climate and archaeology:Uxmal, Chichén Itzá, and Their Collapse at the End of the Terminal Classic Period”, in The American Anthropological Association:The Resilience and Vulnerability of Ancient Landscapes:Transforming Maya Archeology through IHOPE, Vol. 24. Washington D.C.:Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association, p. 56.