The Gallic War refers to the campaigns of subjugation of the Gallic peoples led from -58 to -52 by the Roman general Julius Caesar. The winner himself took it upon himself to recount (and justify) his successes in his famous Comments . If the defeat of Vercingetorix at Alesia and the conquest of Gaul are events well anchored in the French collective memory, things are obviously a little more complex on the historical level. What were the reasons and the circumstances of this conquest? What do we mean by “Gauls”? Can we not speak of a Gallic war? And what were the consequences of Caesar's victory, for himself, for Gaul, and for Rome?
The problem of sources on the Gallic Wars
Any historian must refer to the sources available to him, but with regard to the Gallic Wars he is faced with a double problem:he has in his possession a source first-hand, the Commentaries on the Gallic Wars of Julius Caesar, but obviously it is the source of the winner. Unfortunately, there are few other sources, especially contemporary ones, and as often it is also necessary to use archaeology, as was the case to put an end to the long debate on the exact place of the battle of Alesia. An archeology which, as on other subjects, has made it possible to revolutionize a historiography of the Gallic Wars until then too often kidnapped by the "national novel" (since Napoleon III), and to revitalize the history of Gaul, while breaking down many stereotypes about him.
Regarding Comments of Caesar, we can say that they are composed of eight books, of which seven correspond to a year of this war, the last not being of Caesar himself, but probably of Aulus Hirtius, legate of the proconsul during the conquest of Gaul. There are debates about the wording of these Comments :written together, during the campaign, or after the war? We will not decide here. We can only say that the Comments of Caesar are a key source, but it must obviously be taken with all the necessary critical distance.
Which Gauls?
One of the problems when discussing the Gallic Wars is to define which Gauls are in question. Indeed, we tend to equate Gaul and France, while the Gauls that Caesar conquers between 58 and 50 are very different. Above all, we know that we owe the proconsul "the invention of Gaul", namely that it was he who would have fixed in a relatively arbitrary way the border with the Germans, namely the Rhine.
We must therefore see the Gallic Wars as an extension of a movement started by Rome as early as 120 BC. JC, with the conquest of Transalpine Gaul. Rome, as often, intervenes at the request of allies, such as Marseilles or the Aedui. The Roman influence is felt in Narbonne Gaul, but comes up against the Arvernes who firmly hold the Massif Central. In 122, the conquest was accomplished by the consul C. Domitius Ahenobarbus (who would give his name to the Via Domitia), who founded the colony of Narbonne in 118. It was probably in these same years that the province of Transalpine was established .
We can see that Rome already has one foot in what we call Gaul, even if it has to face to several revolts throughout the second half of the II
th
century. The other Gauls are then very difficult to define before the arrival of Caesar, since it is he who will invent them. Dionysius of Halicarnassus (died 8 AD) evokes a Celtic Gaul located between the Alps, the Pyrenees and the Ocean, but he is later than the events. The same goes for Strabo, who draws inspiration from earlier sources to define a Celtic being limited to the east to the Rhine, to the west to the Pyrenees. We must not forget that for Rome the peoples of Gaul (the Celts would be more accurate) are old acquaintances, as evidenced by the trauma left by the attack on Rome in 390.
Caesar is inspired by the same ancient sources anyway, as can be seen in his description of Gaul in his Commentaries . To "invent" Gaul, he plays on the fear of the Germans, despite Marius' victories over the Teutons, and he separates the Gallic space, and the people, from Germania:"the soil of Gaul and that of Germania were not to be compared, any more than the way in which one lived in one and the other country” (I, 30). Similarly, Caesar distinguishes within Celtic (or hairy) Gaul the allies of Rome (the Aedui for example) from possible enemies (the Arverni, even if forgiven for their past resistance).
But to justify his conquest, Caesar must also find solid arguments and a favorable context.
The causes of the War
We quickly mentioned it with the victory of Marius over the Teutons, the intervention of Rome in Gaul does not date from the 1950s. From the end of the II and century, the threat comes from Germanic peoples, such as the Cimbri, the Ambrones and therefore the Teutons, and Rome is called upon to subdue them, or it intervenes on its own. This is also the case against peoples who fled these "barbarians", such as the Helvetii, who already entered Gaul from 109-108 and were beaten by Sylla in 101, when his rival Marius defeated the Cimbri and the Teutons.
The Helvetii are designated by Caesar himself as the direct cause of the Gallic Wars. Indeed, the people of Orgétorix decided in 61 to leave their territory to go to Saintonge (in the Charentes); he must thus cross the country of allies of Rome, like the Aedui, and send ambassadors there. The death of their leader does not change the plans of the Helvetians, except that they decide to go through the north of the Transalpine instead, which is not to please Rome. A first pretext for Caesar:to protect the north of the province, and the Allobroges allies.
The second pretext is of the same nature, but perhaps more urgent and dangerous:the threat of Ariovistus the German on the friendly peoples of Sequani and Aedui. The latter send in 61 the druid Divitiacos to ask for help in Rome (he meets Cicero there). How to refuse support to a people as close to Rome as the Aedui? The Senate then decides on an intervention by the proconsul of Transalpine in the event of an attack.
The latter is none other than Caesar, consul in 59, and who inherits for his proconsulate Cisalpine Gaul, Transalpine and Illyricum (we can note here that Caesar's first ambitions were in this direction, but that favorable events made him turn to Gaul), and also of four legions. The last pretext that can therefore be found for the Gallic Wars is the ambition of Caesar himself:a victorious campaign would bring him glory and money, and a chance to increase his prestige against Pompey. Events in Gaul were favorable to him, he was able to take advantage of them.
The First Gallic War
We can speak of the first Gallic War because it took place in several phases. In 58 BC, Julius Caesar intervened to prevent the migration of the Helvetians. With a legion, he cuts the Geneva bridge, and refuses negotiations with them. The Helvetians then go back to the North and decide to go through the regions of the Sequani and the Aedui to reach the West as planned. With three Cisalpine legions, Caesar attacks them in Aedui country and defeats them at Bibracte, the oppidum of the allied people. The vast majority of Helvetii were sent home, only a small part received the right to settle near Sancerre.
The second threat is quickly confirmed, the same year, with a first attack by Ariovistus:the Aedui call Caesar for help, and the proconsul defeats the German in Sequan territory before returning to Cisalpine.
The consequence of these two campaigns is that now Caesar really has a foothold in Gaul, and is ready to intervene if necessary, and if he sees fit.
Caesar's campaigns in Gaul, Germany and Britain (57-53)
As early as 57, Julius Caesar traveled to Belgian Gaul to defend the interests of Rome, with two legions and the Remes allies. The Belgians are accused of being too close to the Germans, and are therefore punished. At the same time, a legate of Caesar must intervene in Armorica and, in 56 BC, the proconsul must come to his aid by defeating the Vénètes on sea. The same year, he must quell a new revolt in Gaul Belgium. He keeps his proconsulate thanks to the support of Cicero. 
After touring his provinces of Cisalpine and Illyricum, Caesar returned to Gaul in June 54; with the support of an imposing fleet, he is determined to fight the Treveri first (with four legions), then to return to Brittany. There, he takes Gallic hostages, including Dumnorix the Eduen (brother of Divitiacos) who dies there, and he manages to impose a tribute on the Bretons. However, he must quickly return to Gaul; indeed, Caesar's methods are beginning to irritate Gaul, and various leaders (including Treviro Indutiomaros, yet installed by Rome) take advantage of harvest problems to agitate the people. Among them, the Eburones and the Carnutes, among others. Gaul was thus shaken from Armorica to the Rhine, and Caesar was forced to intervene everywhere for what was, until then, his longest campaign.
It is not the year 53 that sees the situation improve for Caesar:in the context of a growing rivalry with Pompey, he must continue to face the revolts of the Trevires, the Carnutes, to which are added the Sénones. These three peoples go so far as to ignore his summons to an assembly of the Gauls! But Caesar ends up overcoming it, by having the Carnute chief Acco judged and by beating the Eburones; he even decides on a new incursion into Germania to avoid an alliance between Germans and Gauls. He then returns to Cisalpine.
The Gauls behind Vercingetorix
The rivalry between Pompey and Caesar seems to have reached the ears of the Gauls who, perhaps, took advantage of the difficulties of the second to rebel even more broadly at the beginning of 52. Carnutes, once again, massacred Roman merchants at Cenabum (Orleans) in January, then they were joined by peoples from the West, such as the Aulerci or the Sénones, and by the Arverni. The latter had just put the young Vercingetorix in power, and the importance of this people among the other Gauls logically led to the choice of Vercingetorix as leader of the Gallic revolt. Only the Aedui remain loyal to Rome.
César reacted quickly, starting in February. He organized the defenses in Transalpine then, faced with the Gallic offensives on Narbonne, he decided to counter-attack in the heart of Gaul. His campaigns in the Aedui country, and especially Biturige, put Vercingetorix in difficulty, and the Arverne chief had to let go of Avaricum (Bourges). Caesar once again helps the Aedui, by authoritatively settling their internal conflicts, then he goes back on the offensive while Vercingetorix continues to see other tribes join him. The Arverne chief is then victorious in Gergovie, which suggests a positive outcome for the Gauls.
Alesia and the submission of Gaul
Intoxicated by the victory of Gergovie, but also by the unexpected support of the Aedui and officially recognized as leader of the Gauls in Bibracte, Vercingetorix returns to the attack, while practicing the policy of scorched earth. But Caesar decided to call on the Germans, especially their cavalry. The latter crushes the Gauls and leads Vercingetorix to take refuge in the oppidum of Alésia, in August 52 BC. Caesar had a line of fortifications built which closed off the plateau. An attempt to leave the besieged en masse failed. Vercingetorix then took advantage of the last holes in the device to send back the cavalry and call for help. Soon famine reigned over the oppidum. The Gallic relief army, however large, was poorly organized. It was repelled thanks to the remarkable Roman intrenchments. Vercingetorix must finally surrender to the Roman, and with him most of the Gallic tribes.
The consequences of the Gallic Wars
This long military campaign has consequences on many levels:first for the victor, Caesar. He had to wait 46 for his triumph (where Vercingetorix is exhibited) because of the civil war, but his success in Gaul was decisive for his victory over Pompey.
For Gaul obviously, the consequences are immense since it becomes a Roman province (well after the civil war, under Augustus), and its internal balances are completely redefined. We have said it, we can even affirm that it is this war (and its winner) that invented Gaul. Then was born what we will call the Gallo-Roman "civilization".
Finally, for Rome, the consequences are also very important because the Republic (then the Empire) is no longer only a Mediterranean but a continental power, which turns towards the North, whether it be Brittany or the turbulent Germania.
Bibliography
- C. Goudineau, Caesar and Gaul, Seuil, 2000.
- A. Ferdière, Les Gaules, II e century BC. JC-V e century AD. JC, A. Colin, 2005.
- C. Nicolet, Rome and the conquest of the Mediterranean world:genesis of an Empire, New Clio, volume 2, 1991.
- J. César, Gallic Wars, Folio, 1981.