The Etruscans were a people whose civilization developed during antiquity in Etruria in the Italian peninsula. Her name is the Latin version of the Greek word Tyrrhenia or Tyrsenia; the Romans called this people Etrusci or Tusci, from which derives the name of the current Italian region of Tuscany . At its peak, between the 8th and 5th centuries BC. J.-C., Etruria then dominated Latium, Campania and the Po plain, before being entirely submitted to Rome in the 3rd century BC. J.-C. and metallurgists.
Origins and settlement of the Etruscan people
The origin of the Etruscans is still rather vague today. Historians throughout time disagree about this ancient people who inhabited northern Italy, in present-day Tuscany. Some like Herodotus say they came from Asia Minor, a second thesis is that the Etruscans were an Indo-European people who came to Italy after crossing the Alps, while others speak of an indigenous people from the Villanovan civilization. Despite a rapprochement between the Etruscans and the civilizations of Asia Minor through language, art or the place of women in society, the hypothesis of an oriental origin, which still retains its supporters today, has declined considerably. .
Today, and thanks in particular to the excavations carried out in present-day Tuscany since the 18th century, we can attest to the presence of this civilization in the Iron Age, from the end of the 10th century BC, and it is likely that the emergence of this power is in fact due to many mutations and external influences.
The Etruscans first founded Tarquinia, a city near the Tyrrhenian Sea, then developed in the coastal area and inland. In the 7th century BC, at their height, the Etruscan territory extended from the Apennine Mountains to the north and east, to the Tyrrhenian Sea to the west and to the Tiber in the south. Possessing a powerful fleet and excellent sailors, they quickly competed with the Greeks and Carthaginians in the conquest of the western Mediterranean.
They even made an alliance with the Carthaginians to counter the threat of the Greeks and thus take Alalia in 540 BC and extend to Campania, while the Carthaginians will appropriate Sicily and Spain. The Etruscans will even settle in Gaul, then occupied by the Celts, in Lattara (Lattes, near Montpelier). It was indeed discovered in 2002 a bust of an Etruscan warrior of human size, a sanctuary and archaic burials.
Political and religious organization of the Etruscans
The Etruscans formed city-states, sometimes grouped into 12 (dodecapolises), united by religious, but not political, ties. They are individualistic, no one dominates. This autonomy of the Etruscan cities will be the cause of their decline against Rome:unable to unite at the critical moment, they will pass one after the other under Roman domination. Roman mythology has also revealed the names of some Etruscan kings who ruled Rome. And although Rome became a republic towards the end of the 6th century, Etruscan elites continued to rule, until the total overthrow of this civilization.
Until the 5th century BC, cities were ruled by kings, the lucumons who possessed crown, throne, scepter and purple mantle. Overthrown, these kings were replaced by nobles who shared the power. Relatively little is known of the lower magistracies as well as the structure of the population as a whole, other than that there were many slaves.
Some of these must have been very disadvantaged, judging by some violent revolts mentioned. Others were entitled to private houses, like most free men. But it is difficult to imagine these Etruscan houses, of which there are no remains. On the other hand, the Etruscan woman enjoyed a social position equal to that of the man. She could participate in banquets, sports games and even shows.
Not far from the cities were the large necropolises. The tumuli, surmounting underground funerary chambers, are the main source of knowledge for archaeologists. The interior of its rooms, excavated in the 19th century, was intended as a representation of their domestic life, with familiar objects such as vases and jewellery, frescoed walls for the richest tombs, food and the sarcophagus where the deceased rested.
Death among the Etruscans is always accompanied by a banquet, games and dances to accompany the deceased on their journey to the afterlife. These sumptuous pranks express the opulence of this civilization which, according to Posidonius, enjoyed an abundance of foodstuffs and sumptuous clothing. This civilization is thus characterized by the joy of living and the expression of pleasures, through a sumptuous way of life.
We have not received many elements concerning the Etruscan religion, except for the names of some gods who could be related to the Greek gods:Aïta, king of the Underworld (Hades) or even Tinia, supreme God (Zeus). What is proven is that the daily life of the Etruscans was governed by religion, as Livy described it:[they valued] “more than any other nation the observance of religious rites”. The Etruscans thus followed very specific rites and had a particular interest in everything related to the afterlife.
The Etruscan army
The Etruscan military organization remains rather obscure today, and the tax reform described by Tite-Lice would in fact be anachronistic and more recent than the time of Servius Tullius.
At first, the war would rather be a story of territorial disputes. But during the 7th century, with the formation of the Etruscan cities and political changes, an army was set up and the Etruscan warriors had equipment close to that of the Greek hoplites and used the technique of phalanx combat. The army was made up of three entities:the first line is made up of bronze-clad hoplites, fighting in phalanx behind their large circular shield, the clipeus (bronze helmet, cuirass and greaves, spear and sword).
In the second row fight more lightly armed men, equipped with helmet, scutum and spear. The third line is that of voltigeurs, vélites and slingers, which harasses the enemy in front of the heavy troops, and falls back on the orders of the trumpets. If, contrary to the Greek army, the Etruscan army also had a cavalry, it is not certain that they used battle tanks. But the cost of military equipment creates inequalities in the armament of different soldiers.
Servius Tullius, king of ancient Rome and Etruscan king is famous for his reform of the Roman army. He will thus classify the citizens into five classes, according to their fortune, the cens. This provision will change the military organization, since thus, the rich will contribute to the defense of the city with particularly expensive equipment. In the 4th century BC, the type of armament changed:the helmet with spherical cap, neck cover and cheek protectors seemed to be essential in the first classes while the less well-off kept the hoplitic panoply.
Science
The Etruscans had a good knowledge of human anatomy. Archaeological excavations have uncovered sanctuaries equipped with anatomical reproductions testifying to knowledge in this field, but also many surgical tools. They practiced cranial trepanation and knew how to implant gold dental prostheses (found on some human remains).
Archaeological pieces representing internal organs such as the heart, lungs or uterus have been interpreted by Etruscologists as offerings to the Gods to promote the healing of the diseased part of the body. body represented in wax or ceramic. The Etruscans also knew the benefits of thermal waters which they used in decoctions against many diseases.
The Etruscan language
If the Etruscan language is problematic, the writing is less so. It is an alphabetic script, without ideogram. The origin of this alphabet is undoubtedly Greek, and is read from right to left. The preserved inscriptions, which number about 10,000 and come mainly from Campania, Latium or Tarquinia, are essentially from the Roman period. These are above all funerary or votive inscriptions such as the inscription on a mummy strip preserved in Zagreb, or the gold tablets of Pyrgi from the 5th century BC, containing around forty words.
There were longer texts, such as religious and literary works, notably the Tuscan tragedies of Volnius, without knowing precisely when he lived. Some documents have been translated into Latin, but even the translations have disappeared.
This civilization is also characterized by the richness of its art. The Etruscans were skilled craftsmen and artists, as shown by the frescoes of the tombs, or the decorations of vases, the sculptors produced works in bronze or terracotta, and the tombs still testify to the quality of the jewelers and metallurgists.
Etruscan architecture:rare remains
Nothing remains of the palaces, public buildings and early temples, all built of wood and brick. Votive ceramic models, as well as traces of later stone structures, indicate that temples were built within enclosures and had tiled gable roofs, supported by columns, like their Greek counterparts.
The Greek temple was however built along an east-west axis on a low platform, accessible from all four sides by a colonnade; an Etruscan temple, for religious reasons, was located on a north-south axis and stood on a dais lined with a four-columned porch facing three doors leading to three parallel halls for the three major Etruscan gods. The roof was decorated with brightly colored terracotta statues, which had the more prosaic role of hiding the tile joints and the ends of the rafters. Figures in bas-reliefs adorned the entablature. Roman temples were built on the model developed by the Etruscans.
Most Etruscan cities, located, like the Greek acropolises, on high places, were arranged in a quadrilateral, lined with fortifications and enclosures reinforced with double gates and towers . These construction methods were also applied outside Etruria:the walls surrounding Rome in its early stages, supposedly built in the time of Servius Tullius (578-534 BC), were of Etruscan order.
No remains of an Etruscan house have been found, but the interiors of the tombs and house-shaped funerary urns suggest that they had a flat or tiled roof. slope and had one to three rooms. Later examples had an atrium, with an open roof above a cistern for rainwater, and a loggia – a system taken over by the Romans. The Etruscans also built aqueducts, bridges and sewers, such as the Cloaca maxima in Rome built by the Tarquins.
Etruscan art
Sculptures
The Etruscans, like most ancient peoples, did not look at art for its own sake, but created objects for utilitarian or religious reasons. As a result, no artist is known by name and there are few examples of public, strictly civilian art. Moreover, Etruscan art, although sharing common characteristics, is different from one city to another, a reflection of their political independence.
The most famous Etruscan works are in terracotta:they are either sculptures on the lid of sarcophagi (the “sarcophagi of the spouses”, end of the 6th century BC, Villa Giulia, Rome) from Caere or works for temples – coverings to protect wood and carvings on roofs and pediments. The artists of Vulci excelled in the art of carving images in nenfro, a local limestone, represented by the Sphinx and the winged lion in Rome. The Etruscans were also exceptional craftsmen of bronze:the Capitoline Wolf (c. 500 BC), the Chimera (5th-4th century BC, Archaeological Museum, Florence) of Arretium and the life-size statue of Aulus Metellus as an orator, known as the Arringatore (1st century BC, Archaeological Museum), constitute the finest bronze achievements of this period.
Painting
Etruscan painting appears mainly in the form of frescoes on stone or plaster adorning the walls and ceilings of tombs, in particularly in Tarquinia and around Clusium. A small number of painted panels have also been preserved. In the frescoes of the ancient period, the line is energetic, the colors clear and dazzling. The figures are stylized, massive, and often underlined in black. Some frescoes have religious subjects:the four slabs from Caere (c. 550 BC, British Museum, London); others are taken from Greek literature, such as the scenes from the life of Achilles in the Tomb of the Bulls (530-520 BC) at Tarquinia. Most of them represent scenes taken from life:games, dances, banquets that accompanied funeral ceremonies (tomb of the Augurs 520-510 BC; tomb of the Triclinium 480-470 BC- C.).
From the 4th century the tombs, influenced by Hellenistic art and the decline of Etruscan power, are more realistic and exude a surprisingly dark atmosphere, where scenes predominate of war at Vulci (near Tarquinia) and the fearsome demons from the land of the dead (Tomb of the Ogre, 2nd century BC) at Tarquinia.
Decorative arts
The Etruscans began to import or copy decorated Greek pottery; at the same time, they developed a particular technique for making bucchero objects (black and shiny ceramics), with incisions in relief figuring the work of the metal. This technique reached its peak at the end of the 7th and 6th centuries BC. Working in bronze, the Etruscans made chariots, vases, candlesticks, cylindrical chests and polished mirrors, all richly engraved with mythological motifs. They also made jewelry in gold, silver, ivory, with the use of filigree and granulation.
The end of Etruscan civilization
At the beginning of the 5th century BC, the Latin peoples, helped by the Greek army of Cumae, formed a coalition against which the Etruscans could not overcome . The Roman republic at this time becomes more and more important, and it is the beginning of the decline of the Etruscan civilization, with in 474 before J. - C. the defeat vis-a-vis the Greeks. Gradually, the Roman army will take each city and in 264 BC, the Romans seize the last citadel of Volsinia and the Etruscans as a civilization are permanently erased from the Ancient map.
Attempts to revolt against the Roman government were systematically crushed. The links between Rome and Etruria were strengthened in the 1st century BC. AD, when the Etruscans accepted Roman citizenship. However, their newfound status deteriorated rapidly when they joined the losing side in the civil wars (88-86 BC and 83 BC). The victor, Sulla, retaliated brutally, razing towns, seizing land, and imposing restrictions on Etruscan civil rights.
Sylla's brutality so devastated Etruria that subsequent attempts at revolt failed. Later, Augustus sent new settlers to Etruria, who succeeded in accelerating the Romanization of the region. Even if Etruria disappears politically, it will survive in Roman civilization through its beliefs, its superstitions, its art, its customs...
Bibliography
- Discovering the Etruscans, by Marie-Laurence Haack. Discovery, 2021.
- The Etruscans:The End of a Mystery, by Jean-Paul Thuillier. Gallimard, 2009.
- The Etruscans, by Dominique Briquel. What do I know, 2018.
To go further
- The archaeological site of Tarquinia