- The British annexation of Oudh in 1856. Oudh was a large, wealthy, and historically independent state in the north of India. Its annexation by the British provoked widespread resentment among the Indian population.
- The Doctrine of Lapse. This was a policy whereby the British would seize the territory of any Indian state that did not have a male heir to the throne. The Doctrine of Lapse was seen as a threat to the survival of many Indian states.
- The introduction of Western-style education and social reforms. These reforms were seen as a threat to traditional Indian culture and values.
Economic causes:
- The exploitation of India by the British. The British drained India of its wealth through taxation, trade, and other mechanisms. This impoverishment of India led to widespread discontent.
- The displacement of Indian artisans and peasants by British-made goods. The influx of British goods into India led to the decline of traditional Indian industries and the loss of livelihoods for many Indians.
- The high interest rates charged by British moneylenders. This made it difficult for Indians to borrow money and start businesses.
Religious causes:
- The British interference in religious matters. The British tried to suppress many traditional Indian religious practices, such as the practice of sati. This caused outrage among many Indians.
- The conversion of Indians to Christianity by British missionaries. This was seen as a threat to the traditional religions of India.
Military causes:
- The poor treatment of Indian soldiers by their British officers. Indian soldiers were often paid less than British soldiers and were subjected to harsh discipline. This led to resentment and anger among Indian soldiers.
- The use of Indian soldiers to fight against other Indians. Indian soldiers were often used by the British to suppress rebellions and uprisings in other parts of India. This made Indian soldiers feel like they were being used against their own people.
Social causes:
- The caste system. The caste system was a rigid social hierarchy that divided Indian society into different classes. The lower castes were often discriminated against and denied opportunities for education, employment, and advancement. This led to resentment and anger among the lower castes.
- The status of women. Women were denied many rights and opportunities in Indian society. They were not allowed to own property, inherit wealth, or receive an education. This led to frustration and anger among Indian women.
The immediate cause:
- The greased cartridges incident. In early 1857, a rumor spread among Indian soldiers that the new cartridges issued by the British were greased with the fat of cows and pigs. This horrified the Hindu and Muslim soldiers, who considered cows and pigs to be sacred animals. The refusal of Indian soldiers to use the cartridges led to the mutiny of the 34th Bengal Native Infantry at Barrackpore on 29 March 1857. This mutiny sparked a chain reaction of uprisings and rebellions throughout India.
The Indian War of Independence of 1857 was a complex and multifaceted event. The causes of the war were deep-seated and involved a variety of political, economic, religious, military, and social factors. The war was a major turning point in Indian history and had a profound impact on the relationship between India and Britain.