- Uncharted Waters: The explorers set out into vast and largely uncharted oceans, with limited knowledge of the geography and navigational hazards ahead. They relied on rudimentary navigation tools like compasses and astrolabes, often sailing by trial and error.
- Disease: Infectious diseases such as scurvy, dysentery, smallpox, and malaria were common on long oceanic voyages. Limited medical knowledge and unsanitary conditions resulted in widespread illness and high mortality rates among the crew members.
- Extreme Weather and Storms: Explorers faced unpredictable weather conditions, including ferocious storms, high winds, fog, and extreme temperatures. Sailing ships were vulnerable to strong currents, shipwrecks, and capsizing.
- Inadequate Provisions: Long journeys meant ensuring a sufficient supply of food and water for the crew. Preserving and storing provisions was challenging, with food often spoiling or becoming infested with pests during lengthy voyages.
- Native Resistance: As Europeans ventured into regions already inhabited by indigenous peoples, they often encountered resistance and conflict. Unfamiliarity with local customs, languages, and political dynamics led to tensions, and indigenous groups sometimes fought to defend their territories and ways of life.
- Unfavorable Geography: Navigating coastlines with steep cliffs, shallow waters, and treacherous passages added complexity to exploration. Some areas had dense mangroves, coral reefs, or icebergs that could damage or ground ships.
- Language Barriers: Communicating with people from different cultures who spoke unfamiliar languages posed significant challenges. This hampered trade, diplomacy, and the gathering of accurate information about the new lands.
- Desertion and Mutiny: Prolonged sea voyages, harsh conditions, and inadequate support could lead to crew discontent and even mutiny. Sailors might question the decisions of their captains or seek refuge ashore after suffering through extreme hardships.
- Navigation Errors: Lack of precise geographical knowledge, coupled with inaccuracies in maps and measurements, made it difficult for explorers to pinpoint their exact locations or find specific destinations. Mistakes in navigation sometimes led to unexpected encounters with landmasses or coastlines.
Despite these obstacles, the determination and perseverance of early European explorers pushed the boundaries of geographical knowledge and laid the foundation for future voyages and discoveries.