Napoleon I

Intro

(Victor Hugo. Speech at the French Academy, June 3, 1841).

Bonaparte's youth

A promising childhood

Napoleon Bonaparte was born in Ajaccio in 1769, three months after the Republic of Genoa ceded Corsica to France. His family was of noble origin but did not live in comfort because it was necessary to feed the eight children to whom his mother Letizia gave birth. From the age of 10, he entered the military school of Brienne, very often derided by his comrades for his Corsican origins which he claims, he withdraws into himself and prefers to isolate himself to read. He proves gifted for mathematics and is interested in History, very young, he already presents a happy synthesis of the ideals of the Enlightenment and the romantic conception of the man of action. At the age of 15 he joined the military school in Paris where he became second lieutenant of artillery, his teachers passed on him the following judgment:

Amazing social integration

As the Revolution approached, he felt deeply Jacobin and did not hide his desire to see the Republic proclaimed. In 1793, France was at war with the European powers who wanted to see the end of the revolutionary ideal and its conquests. The great port of Toulon fell into the hands of the English, the position then seemed impregnable. But Bonaparte having obtained the command of the artillery forces which were to take over the city immediately showed his military genius, he distributed the few guns he had and subjected Toulon to an intensive bombardment, the British were forced to evacuate . A time imprisoned after the fall of Robespierre (9 Thermidor) for his Jacobin positions, Napoleon managed to return to the scene thanks to Barras (the most influential man of the Directory), soon he was called upon to suppress a royalist revolt ( 13 vendémiaire), his qualities as an artilleryman worked wonders and he was then promoted to general of division at the age of 26. He married Joséphine de Beauharnais (widow of the revolutionary of the same name) in 1796, then left immediately to campaign in Italy where he obtained an important command.

Napoleon Bonaparte at 23

The general's military campaigns

The Italian campaign

Napoleon was in charge of fixing the Austrians in order to allow two more armies (commanded by Jourdan and Moreau) to attack Austria in Switzerland and Germany. Only his army is weak, it is made up of only 36,000 inexperienced young people assigned to a disparate armament. However, this army performed miracles, while Jourdan and Moreau suffered major setbacks, Bonaparte penetrated Italy with lightning speed and succeeded in separating the Austrians whom he defeated at Montenotte and the Piedmontese defeated at Millesimo and Dego. There remained then Austrians determined to protect Milan, those had concentrated around the bridge of Lodi. Crossing the bridge seemed like madness, however, the grenadiers rushed forward and faced the enemy grapeshot, Napoleon was able to enter Milan where he already enjoyed astonishing popularity. The people considered him as a revolutionary messenger who could abolish the feudal system, for the sovereigns, he appeared only as a "Robespierre on horseback". But the people were going to pay dearly for this privilege, heavy taxes were introduced and France saw heavy carts of materials and works of art coming. As in other places in Europe, Napoleon was "an angel of freedom" at the beginning and then "an ogre of the peoples" at the end of his reign. After other great victories, the peace of Campoformio is signed, it is a triumph for France which is endowed with new territories.

The load of the Arcole bridge

At the bridge of Arcole, Napoleon, whom his soldiers affectionately nicknamed "the little corporal", found himself faced with the same situation as at Lodi, he snatched the flag from the hands of a sergeant, brandished it and went forward again, jostled, he comes close to death and will be found passed out in the marshes. The image of Napoleon at the head of his troops in the front line has remained famous, during the charge, his aide-de-camp Muiron will be killed protecting him with his whole body, this sacrifice will remain in his memory. A few days later Napoleon helped by Augereau and Masséna will definitively prevail over the Austrians during the battle of Rivoli.

Bonaparte at the Pont d'Arcole - by Antoine-Jean GROS 1801 (Fabre Museum)

The Egyptian campaign

In Paris everyone is already whispering the name of the winner of Lodi. However, the concerns of the Directory towards this ambitious general, eager to remove him, gave him a command in the East against the British. Indeed, England was at that time the greatest enemy of France, it drew its wealth from its colonies and its powerful fleet gave it a military advantage. To occupy Egypt would be to increase French supremacy in the Mediterranean and cut off the road to India. After having occupied the island of Malta, Napoleon landed in Alexandria, where the harsh climate was already felt in the morale of the troops. In the desert, he fights the Mamluks of the Turkish sultan allied with the English, it was before the battle of the Pyramids that Napoleon pronounced these famous words:“Soldiers, remember that from the top of his pyramids forty centuries are watching you! ". Unfortunately, the French fleet is destroyed at Aboukir by Admiral Nelson. Bonaparte was then cut off from Europe. He therefore remains in Egypt and organizes the country, he brings in many scholars who will develop Egyptology. The famous Champollion will decipher the code of hieroglyphics later in 1824 using the Rosetta Stone which was discovered in 1799. Bonaparte will set out to conquer Syria where the plague will appear, and despite some military successes, the capture of Saint-Jean d'Acre is a failure. Napoleon finally realized that his presence in Egypt was useless, he decided to return to France by escaping the English ships, Murat's victory over the Turks took away everyone's idea of ​​the failure of this campaign.

The Battle of the Pyramids

Under the gaze of the Pyramids, Bonaparte maintains his dream of glory in the East, where he wants to follow in the footsteps of Alexander. Supported by Talleyrand, the expedition included the best generals of the Directory, notably Kléber and Desaix, as well as many scholars, artists and engineers.

The Consulate

The coup

During this time, France suffered heavy setbacks in Germany and Italy, the Directory demonstrated every day its inability to resolve the political situation. On his return, Napoleon found a country that had succumbed to anarchy and disorder. It was then that many greedy bourgeois circles regrouped in an attempt to seize power. One of the directors (one of the five members of the Directory) Sieyès sees in Napoleon "the head and the sword" which must be called upon to restore order, he takes him into his confidence and Napoleon immediately sees the benefits he could derive from the situation. His brother Lucien Bonaparte had just been elected President of the Council of Five Hundred and the army was entirely his. It was then that on 18 and 19 Brumaire (year VII of the revolutionary calendar), Lucien transferred the Council of Five Hundred to the Château de Saint-Cloud, because rumors of a royalist plot had been spread, while the Council of the Ancients offers Napoleon the armed forces of Paris. All the key pieces are at stake. Bonaparte invests the castle and wins the game without spilling a drop of blood, except perhaps his own:in the middle of real fights, his brother Lucien interrupts in time a gesture which could have put a end to his political ambitions. A vote was taken to hand over power to “three consuls of the Republic” (parallel with the Roman triumvirate). This time, Bonaparte is elected First Consul, and he is assisted by Sieyès and Ducos (another director) (who are the provisional consuls).

The coup of 18 Brumaire

Day during which Napoleon Bonaparte was appointed commander of the armed forces of Paris by the Council of Elders, to which Director Sieyès, assisted by Director Ducos, had made believe in a royalist plot; the two Councils were transferred to Saint-Cloud. On 19 Brumaire, Bonaparte launched Murat's grenadiers against the Council of Five Hundred at the request of their president Lucien:the Directory was definitively overthrown. In the evening, the 2 Councils designated as provisional consuls Sieyès, Roger Ducos and Bonaparte. The Consulate was born.

General Bonaparte at the Council of Five Hundred, at Saint Cloud. November 10, 1799 - by François BOUCHOT 1840 (Fabre Museum)

The second Italian campaign

Very quickly, Bonaparte asserted himself as the real leader of the new power, he then undertook the reorganization of the country (1800:creation of the prefectural body, Banque de France, 1801:Concordat, 1802:Legion of Honor, 1803:Franc germinal, 1804:Civil Code see France under Napoleon). In 1800, renewing the exploit of Hannibal, Napoleon crossed with his army the difficult Col du Saint-Bernard, it was necessary to pass the guns on tree trunks towed by the soldiers. It was a question of making people forget the setbacks in Italy suffered during the Egyptian campaign. Napoleon managed to turn the tide of the war during the Battle of Marengo, Moreau's success on another front gave France dominance over Italy. War is an obstacle to the reforms he wants to put in place, therefore, peace becomes his greatest concern, and after the Austrians and Italians, Bonaparte convinces the British in the following way:

This peace then earned him sparkling popularity, and on Marengo's return, a column was erected on Place Vendôme. He was then appointed First Consul for life. Peace thus favored the rise of industry and commerce, Louisiana was ceded to the United States for 80 million francs.

The First Consul Bonaparte crossing the Alps at the Col du Grand Saint-Bernard, May 20, 1800

Bonaparte Crossing the Great Saint-Bernard Pass - by Jacques-Louis DAVID 1800 (National Museum of the Châteaux of Malmaison and Bois Préau)

The Great Empire

The confirmation of power

Unfortunately, England very quickly set up an embargo on French ships, Napoleon replied and wanted to attempt a landing in England by regrouping the fleet at Boulogne sur Mer, but he had to give it up (William the Conqueror remains the only one to have succeeded in this feat) . From England, royalist conspirators exiled in London plot for the assassination of Bonaparte, the chouan Cadoudal carries out the attack of "the infernal machine" which will fail. To avoid further misfortunes on his person, Napoleon had the Duc d'Enghien kidnapped and executed in order to intimidate the Bourbons and the royalists who wanted to regain power. It is then said that after the news Josephine entered Napoleon's cabinet in the middle of the night, shouting "The Duke of Enghien is dead!" Ah! my friend, what have you done? ". The latter turned pale as death and answered:"I am the Revolution and I will embody it!" », Talleyrand will declare « It is more than a crime, it is a fault ». Many royalists are imprisoned, including Moreau and Pichegru who were also suspected. It is to safeguard the privileges of the Consulate and the Revolution that Napoleon decides to establish his dynasty by having himself crowned Emperor of the French, the plebiscite of the people was unanimous. On December 2, 1804, in the presence of Pope Pius VII at Notre-Dame de Paris, Napoleon took the crown from the hands of the Pope and placed it himself on his head, before crowning Empress Josephine, Napoleon thus became the equal Caesars, surprising thing:10 years after having guillotined their king, the French acclaim their Emperor. Members of his family were now princes and highnesses and were entrusted with thrones across Europe. The Revolution was well over.

Consecration of the Emperor at Notre-Dame de Paris on December 2, 1804

During the ceremony, Napoleon took the crown from Pius VII and placed it himself on his head before crowning Empress Josephine.

Coronation of Emperor Napoleon I and coronation of Empress Josephine - by Jacques-Louis DAVID 1806-1807 (Louvre Museum)

The laurels of victory

To prevent the return to the monarchy, Napoleon creates an imperial nobility across Europe, he will put the crown of king of Italy on his head and his brother Joseph is named king of Naples. Napoleon definitively abandoned the invasion of England after learning that Admiral Villeneuve had taken refuge in Cadiz. my duty ". Napoleon then took the lead of the Grande Armée to face the third European coalition. After the capitulation of the Austrians in Ulm, he won one of the most prestigious victories:Austerlitz. In 1806, Napoleon became protector of the Confederation of the Rhine, a fourth coalition then slipped away, and new victories followed, including that of Jena against the Prussians. Strengthened by his territorial influence, Napoleon decreed a continental blockade against England. Frederick William of Prussia refuses to ratify the armistice of Charlottenburg signed after Jena. He counts on the support of the Russians to get out of trouble. Unfortunately for him, Russia was defeated at Eylau following a very uncertain battle in 1807 (Ney's troops having arrived just in time). Then, the Russians suffer a new setback at Friedland, they are forced to negotiate. On a raft immobilized in the middle of a bank on the Niemen, the Emperor talks with Tsar Alexander I, the current passes well between the two men and the alliance of Tilsit is signed between the two countries. Nothing can stop Napoleon.

Napoleonic Europe in 1811

The Spanish guerrillas

In order to consolidate the continental blockade against England, Napoleon approaches Spain whose trade with the English was particularly important, the troops commanded by Junot even reach Lisbon. Napoleon then acted as arbiter in the quarrel between King Charles IV of Spain and his son Ferdinand, both Bourbons. Napoleon contented himself with placing his brother Joseph in Spain and his general Murat in Naples. From then on, the incredible happened, the people of Madrid rose up and refused this king that had been imposed on them, the Spanish people armed themselves with pitchforks and organized skirmishes, harassing the Napoleonic forces. The greatest army of all time, invincible and victorious over the greatest European coalitions, will prove incapable of reducing this popular guerrilla warfare. For the first time in 1808, a Napoleonic army capitulated. Napoleon is trying somehow to prevent the news from spreading, but the European powers are now finding hope, so the Eagle is not invincible!

The Fifth Coalition

Austria therefore takes up arms again, Napoleon goes back to the East and wins the victory of Wagram, a Franco-Austrian armistice is signed, then a peace treaty, shortly after Napoleon suffered a new assassination attempt by a student Austrian. In the absence of an heir, the Emperor regretfully dissolved his marriage with Josephine and married Marie-Louise, the daughter of the Emperor of Austria, his new ally. He hopes she will give him the heir he hasn't had yet. It was done in 1811, François-Charles-Joseph-Napoleon (Napoleon II) was born with the title of King of Rome. The delivery had gone badly, it was thought the child was stillborn, but soon the cannon shots rang out to celebrate the birth of the heir, the people waiting at the entrance to the Tuileries cheered the birth of "the 'eaglet'. Napoleon was then at his peak. An important conflict with the Church of Rome is worth to Pius VII to be locked up, this one refused the English blockade and the influence of the Emperor on the Church.

European coalitions against France (Revolution and Empire)

• 1st coalition
  • Date:1793-1795
  • Countries:England, United Provinces, Prussia, Austria, Spain, Portugal, Piedmont-Sardinia, Papal States, Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
  • Battles:Valmy, Fleurus, Rivoli, Toulon
• 2nd coalition
  • Date:1798-1799
  • Country:England, Austria, Russia, Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Sweden, Ottoman Empire
  • Battles:Marengo
• 3rd Coalition
  • Date:1805
  • Country:England, Austria, Russia, Naples
  • Battles:Ulm, Trafalgar, Austerlitz
• 4th coalition
  • Date:1806-1807
  • Country:Prussia, Russia, Sweden, Saxony, England
  • Battles:Jena, Eylau, Friedland
• 5th coalition
  • Date:1808-1809
  • Countries:England, Austria and Spain
  • Battles:Wagram
• 6th Coalition
  • Date:1813-1814
  • Country:England, Austria, Sweden, Russia, Prussia
  • Battles:Leipzig
• 7th coalition
  • Date:1815
  • Countries:England, Russia, Prussia, Sweden, Austria, Netherlands, various German states
  • Battles:Waterloo

The beginning of the end

The Russian Campaign

In 1811, Tsar Alexander I rejected the Treaty of Tilsit and decided to reopen its ports to British ships. The two men had since entered into conflict after the failure of a peace signing. Napoleon, very much in love with his Polish mistress Marie Walewska had created the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, at the expense of the Russian Tsar who hoped to share Europe with the Emperor. Many betrayals and alliances then slipped away, Marshal Bernadotte, who had obtained the throne of Sweden, signed a treaty with Russia and changed sides. Only the United States signs a friendly treaty with France (the two nations have developed a friendly relationship since the American Revolution). But back to Russia, Napoleon acted very quickly and sent the gigantic Grande Armée towards Moscow in the summer of 1812, it was a mistake, after summer came autumn and the terrible Russian winter. The head of the Russian army was still old Kutozov, already defeated at Austerlitz. He had the conviction that Napoleon was unbeatable in open country, this assertion was verified after the battle of Borodino (or Moskova). But Kutozov knew that the Russian winter was his last chance, he withdrew avoiding combat, burning his villages to leave the enemy without food. The Emperor returned to deserted Moscow, settled in the palace and spent the night in Alexander I's room. But during the night, the Russians had set fire to their city, Napoleon immediately understood the deception and knew that he had lost, he withdrew his army. This was the beginning of the terrible retreat from Russia, during which the Grand Army suffered losses from the cold and repeated attacks by the Cossacks. But the heroism of the French pontonniers still made it possible to bring back the "debris" of the Grande Armée, partly trapped in the frozen lakes. Very quickly the failure reaches the ears of Paris, a rumor is launched by Malet according to which Napoleon had been killed. The Emperor then realizes that his entourage begins to plot, after the betrayal of Bernadotte, it is the turn of Murat, who has recourse to the Austrians.

The withdrawal of the Grand Army on the Moskva

Ricard's division at the battle of Krasnoe on November 18, 1812 at 9 a.m.

The invasion of France

Throughout Europe, it is rumored that "The eagle is wounded", moreover, the Duke of Wellington beats Junot in Spain. The empire is under attack from two fronts. A sixth European coalition is set up. Russia, Prussia (which abandoned Napoleon), England, Austria (whose Emperor made fun of knowing that his grandson was the heir to the finest empire created since Charlemagne), Spain, Holland, Sweden (of Bernadotte) and other small states joined forces against the armies of France, Italy, Germany, Holland and Illyria. The Emperor continues to win victories, but these are not decisive because he lacks cavalry, especially since the brave Bessières who commanded the imperial cavalry is dead. The Army cannot thus pursue the enemy and annihilate it, which allows the latter to reorganize. A truce is nevertheless signed so that the belligerents can advise. The clashes resume after the withdrawal of the army from Spain (this is a new sign of weakness). The feats of arms are undecided and the victories are balanced on both sides, Napoleon decides to gather his army in Leipzig. It was there that the “Battle of the Nations” took place, so called because of the number of States participating in it. The Emperor's 160,000 men had to face 320,000 allies, not to mention that Napoleon's German allies changed sides in the middle of the battle, precipitating France's defeat. Napoleon, on his return to Paris, wants to be reassuring and appeals again to French patriotism, he proposes a Peace Congress, but the Allies declare that they are not waging war against France but against Napoleon. Then follows, the invasion of the "campaign of France". Napoleon displayed once again his military genius in ten victories. At the head of the "Marie-Louise" (conscripts under 20 called up by a decree signed by the Empress), he carried out a formidable campaign against an army clearly superior in number. However, the discouragement of the marshals and part of the population favors the entry of the allies into Paris. Meanwhile Louis XVIII (heir to the Bourbons) invites the French to welcome the Allies with open arms in Paris. The Senate which had him elected Emperor votes for his forfeiture and offers Talleyrand the provisional government. Napoleon's popularity has been faltering for months and most French people want to end the war which sends men to the front earlier and earlier. It was at Fontainebleau that the dejected Emperor signed his abdication, he bade farewell to his Guard. He will try to commit suicide by swallowing poison, it is his friend the Marquis de Caulaincourt who intervenes in time. The allies grant him the derisory island of Elba as a form of sovereignty, and Louis XVIII sits on the throne of France reduced to its 1792 borders.

The Emperor's Farewell at Fontainebleau

Portrait of Delaroche, features swollen, fierce gaze, he already knows he is defeated, in a few days he will have to sign his abdication.

Napoleon at Fontainebleau. March 31, 1814. Eve of his abdication - by Paul DELAROCHE

Exiles

The Hundred Days

Yet the Emperor's destiny is not over, it is here that his legend is embellished. In Paris, Louis XVIII, is very quickly unpopular, during this time Napoleon leads a pleasant life in the middle of his court, he will learn shortly after the death of his first wife Joséphine. But, made aware of the king's unpopularity, Napoleon was already preparing his return. He escapes the surveillance of the English ships, escaping one moonless night to the Golfe-Juan. Napoleon's bet is to regain power without shedding a single drop of blood, "The Eagle flies from steeple to steeple to the towers of Notre-Dame" . Marshal Ney, having taken up the cause of Louis XVIII, had promised himself to lock Napoleon up in an iron cage, but faced with the enthusiasm of the people and the Army, he once again rallied to him. At Laffrey, the Emperor encountered a royalist regiment, stood in front of them, chest offered and exclaimed “Soldiers of the 5th Regiment, recognize me. If there is a soldier among you who wants to kill his Emperor, he can do it. Here I am” . The soldiers will not shoot but will tear off their white cockades to follow him. Napoleon reached Paris in 20 days, he previously restored the tricolor flag by decree. He crosses France welcomed by all the enthusiasm of the people, he is carried in triumph on his return to Paris. Faced with the situation, Louis XVIII fled to the North. Napoleon was becoming Emperor again, his loyal subjects over the years were coming back to him, Murat was once again submitting to his service. The allied forces of Europe met once again, at Waterloo in 1815. That day, the Emperor was faced with a new challenge, his army was less than half the English of Wellington and their allies, who ended up by getting the better of their determination, the illusion flies away with the victory.

The Immortal of Saint Helena

Napoleon had to sign a new abdication, Louis XVIII returned to the throne, and the Allies made sure to erase the memories of the French Revolution and the Empire. "The Eagle" had flown for a hundred days, Napoleon gave up on fleeing to the United States and submitted to English hospitality. But the English deported him to the island of Saint Helena as a prisoner of war with some of his followers, where he could not escape, under the guard of the governor of the island:Hudson Lowe. Many stories are counted about his stay there (planned escape, poisoning, substitution of the tomb), he will die there on May 5, 1821 (stomach cancer like his father or poisoned with arsenic?) . British Governor Hudson Lowe refused to inscribe Napoleon's name on his tombstone considering, like his country, that it was only General Bonaparte. He had no idea that Queen Victoria would come 34 years later to pray under the dome of the Invalides, under the tomb of the Great Napoleon. It is under a rainy night that a French expedition unearths the remains of the Emperor in Saint Helena, the tomb is repatriated under Louis-Philippe behind a triumphal march in Paris. The French, like the whole world, were not going to forget the man who brought Europe to its knees. Napoleon remains for many the most illustrious of the French, and one of the greatest figures in universal history.

Napoleon in Saint Helena

Like Prometheus on his rock, Napoleon ended the last six years of his life on this isolated island in the Atlantic. He will work to forge his eternal memory, his secretary Las Cases will write his stories in "The memorial of Saint Helena".

Napoleon at Saint Helena