The mountainous territories of the north of the Iberian Peninsula had been left out of the domain of al-Andalus. Various peoples lived in these areas, established since pre-Roman times, including the Galicians, the Asturians, the Cantabrians or the Vascones, as well as the Hispani , name given by the chronicles of the time to the inhabitants of the central and eastern Pyrenees. They were joined by the Visigoths who, in the presence of the Islamists, went to take refuge in those territories. Now then, since the middle of the 8th century, various political nuclei emerged in these regions, from the Asturian kingdom, to the west, which was the first to be created, to the counties of the future Catalonia, to the east, passing through the kingdom of Pamplona and the county of Aragon . These nuclei became the banner of Christian resistance against the Muslims of al-Andalus. However, in the period between the 8th and 10th centuries, the contrast between the sphere of Hispanic Christianity and al-Andalus was clearly spectacular. The Christian Spain of that time was a fully rural area, with hardly any urban centers and very little monetary circulation. In the cultural field, the distance was, if possible, even greater between Christian and Muslim territory.
The Kingdom of Astur-Leones
The first of the political nuclei that were constituted in the territory of the Iberian Peninsula not dominated by the Muslims was the Asturian kingdom. Traditionally it has been assumed that it was as a result of the victory obtained in Covadonga, in the year 722, by the inhabitants of that area over an Islamic expeditionary force that had entered the Cantabrian mountains when that step was taken. Undoubtedly, the event in Covadonga, presented by Christian clerics as "the salvation of Spain" , has been mythologized. That was a combat carried out by the Asturians, who were fighting to preserve their autonomy as they had done in the past against the Romans and Visigoths. But at the head of these combatants was Pelayo, who was a member of the Gothic nobility. Shortly after, at the head of the Asturian nucleus, nothing less than a monarch, Alfonso I (739-757), was placed, who made various raids through the Duero basin . The chronicles of the time say that Alfonso I "wasted the fields called Gothic", taking numerous Christians settled on the northern plateau to the Asturian lands. An important step was taken in the following century, during the reign of Alfonso II (791-842). This monarch not only established the court in the city of Oviedo, but also decided to assume the Visigoth heritage, which resulted in measures such as the reorganization of the Palatium or the implementation of the Liber ludicum. In times of Alfonso II, on the other hand, the supposed remains of the apostle Santiago were discovered in Galicia, who was soon to become the quintessential emblem of Christian resistance . The reign of Alfonso II also saw the beginning of repopulation activity in the Duero basin, due to the fact that it was a no man's land from the point of view of political control.
Advance of the Astur Kingdom
The second half of the 9th century witnessed the great advance of the Asturians through the Duero basin, undoubtedly spurred on by the internal disputes that shook al-Andalus in those years. In the times of Ordoño I (850-866) the Christians recovered, among other nuclei, Tuy (854), Astorga (854) and León (856). Around that time, Mozarabs began to arrive in the Duero basin, escaping from the persecution they suffered in al-Andalus. Now, the most notable progress of the Asturian nucleus was carried out by Alfonso III (866-910), in whose reign the Christians reached the line of the Duero river . The first step was the colonization of Porto (868). At the end of the 9th century, the Asturians arrived in Zamora (893), Simancas (899) and Toro (900). At the same time, the Castilian count Diego Rodríguez repopulated Castrogeriz (883) and Burgos (884). Alfonso III was designated, in his last years, "emperor", a title that perhaps implied his primacy over the other political leaders of Christian Spain, and in particular over the kings of Pamplona.
New Center of Reino Astur
The 10th century, in contrast to the previous one, witnessed a standstill in the advance of the Christians. Let us not forget that this century coincided with the maximum splendor of al-Andalus. For the rest, it should be noted that the center of the Asturian kingdom had moved to the city of León. Hence, since the beginning of the 10th century, people have spoken of the Asturian-Leonese kingdom or simply Leonese. The Christians barely managed to resist along the Duero line. It is true that Ramiro II (931-951) had an important military success, defeating Abderramán III in the battle of Simancas (939) . That was the starting point for the colonization of the lands located south of the Duero, specifically in the Tormes valley. But a few years later there was a new withdrawal of the Christians. The second half of the 10th century was, without a doubt, the one that saw the greatest decline of the "kingdom-empire of León", which was struggling in continuous internal struggles . As if that were not enough, in the last decades of the tenth century the Cordovan hachib Almanzor launched terrifying attacks on Christians. A certain respite, however, was known by the "Leonian kingdom-empire" after the death of Almanzor, during the reigns of Alfonso V (999-1028), who carried out the restoration of the city of León, and of Bermudo III ( 1028-1037).
The Asturian-Leonese kingdom drank from the Visigothic tradition, which explains why the kings were chosen from among members of the ancient Gothic nobility, even though little by little hereditary succession was established. Likewise, the government institutions were reminiscent of Visigothic times. The Palatium , for example, was heir to the Aula Regia. Regarding the territorial organization, the kingdom was divided into counties, with a comes to the front, although there were also smaller demarcations, such as the seizures and the commandments .
The county of Castilla
The Astur-Leonese kingdom extended, in the 10th century, from the Cantabrian Sea to the Duero River and from Galicia to the Alto Ebro.
Given the conditions of the time, governing such a vast territory was obviously very difficult. Hence, centrifugal tendencies arose in some areas of the Duero basin, particularly in the eastern regions, where Castilla saw the light, a name whose oldest mention is found in a document from the year 800. That territory was, in a way, the border of the Asturian kingdom, since most of the oil oils penetrated through the Alto Ebro of the Muslims. This explains the abundance of fortifications, which, according to all indications, gave rise to the name of Castile that will be applied to the region . Another distinctive feature of primitive Castile was the participation in the repopulating tasks of Basque people, which were characterized by their weak romanization. Likewise, the distance from the court explains that in the territory of the nascent Castile they were governed by customs and not by the Fuero Jusgo, whose copies, according to legend, were burned.
Autonomy of the County of Castilla
The eastern regions of the Asturian-Leonese kingdom were articulated around various counties. At the beginning of the tenth century there were counts of Lantarón, Álava, Burgos and Castile proper . But, a few years later, thanks to the work carried out by Fernán González (927-970), these counties will merge into one, which will henceforth be called the County of Castile. Fernán González, considered by romantic historiography to be the "father of the Castilian homeland", was a person of great political skill, who knew how to take advantage of the discord that existed in those years in the kingdom of León. But he did not become independent, in any way, from the Leonese kings. Undoubtedly, he achieved a great margin of political autonomy, while at the same time he was able to transmit the county to his heirs:his son García Fernández, later Sancho García and finally, already in the 11th century, Doña Sancha, married to the King of Pamplona Sancho III. the oldest. But Fernán González never broke the formal ties that united him with the Leonese kings. Castile in the times of Fernán González, according to the opinion expressed in his day by the historian Salvador de Moxó, was a kind of feudal principality, similar in its political functioning to the counties of the Carolingian Empire.
The kingdom of Pamplona
The area where the kingdom of Pamplona arose was occupied by towns that maintained strong tribal ties. They were the Vascones, people who lived basically from livestock and who had a long tradition of political autonomy. In the second half of the 8th century, this territory was subject to a double influence:that of the Franks, to the north, and that of the Muslims, to the south . In the year 788, the Basques who lived in the mountains of Navarre attacked by surprise the Carolingian army, which was returning to France, after having gone to Zaragoza in defense of the Banu Qasi, a family of muladíes who governed that border mark of al-Andalus.
Beginnings of the Kingdom of Pamplona
The genesis of the kingdom of Pamplona, later called Navarre, is not at all clear. In any case, at the beginning of the 9th century, a certain Íñigo Íñiguez, known as Arista but at the same time called "Prince of the Vascones", established a monarchy in that territory. He was succeeded to the throne by García Íñiguez (851-888), in whose reign the passage of pilgrims who came to Compostela was favored, and Fortún Garcés (888-905).
Advance of the Kingdom of Pamplona
However, in the following century, another dynasty, known as Jimena, appeared at the head of the Pamplona monarchy. Its founder was Sancho Garcés I (905-925), who incorporated into his kingdom various territories located in the flat lands of the south, located in the Alto Ebro. Specifically, the aforementioned monarch conquered a part of La Rioja, including the town de Nájera (914) and years later, Vigueta (923), although he also suffered a humiliating defeat in Valdejunquera (920) before the troops of the Cordovan caliph Abderramán III. Sancho Garcés I was succeeded to the throne by García Sánchez I (925-970), who took an important step by marrying the heir to the county of Aragón, Andregoto Galíndez. As a result of this union, Navarre and Aragon would remain united, a situation that lasted for nearly a century. The last Pamplona monarchs of the 10th century, Sancho Garcés II (970-994) and García Sánchez II (994-1000), witnessed the terrible oil oils launched by the Cordovan hachib Almanzor.
Sancho Garcés III, "King of the Spains"
However, in the first third of the 11th century, the kingdom of Pamplona, headed by Sancho Garcés III (1000-1035), better known as Sancho el Mayor, became the most important of all the political centers of Christian Spain . For now, Sancho III incorporated the territories of Sobrarbe and Ribagorza into his dominions, while at the same time getting other counts of eastern Spain to lend him vassalage, including that of Pallars. Also important was the marriage of the Pamplona monarch with Doña Sancha, who in 1029 became heiress to the county of Castile, which led to the linking of this territory to the Navarrese kingdom. Let us remember, finally, that the troops from Pamplona entered the city of León in the year 1034. That event gave rise to Sancho III calling himself "King of the Spains" and "possessor of the Empire". In any case, the importance of the kingdom of Pamplona at that time was not only due to the military and political successes of Sancho III, but also to the economic strength that his kingdom showed, in which crafts were gaining considerable strength. and trade . In particular, the urban center of Pamplona stood out, "spacious and rich city", in the words of the Arab chronicler al-Himyari, Sancho III, on the other hand, maintained close contacts with Christian Europe, which resulted in the acceptance in his kingdom of the Cluniac reform as well as in the notable boost it gave to the pilgrims' path who, coming from France and after crossing his kingdom, headed for Santiago de Compostela.
The county of Aragon
The county of Aragón, which owes its name to a river, emerged in the Pyrenees, specifically in the Ansó, Echo and Canfranc valleys. Its origin has much to do with the interest shown by the Franks in protecting their southern borders from a possible Muslim attack . At the beginning of the ninth century we find a count named Aureolus, about whom little else is known except that he was a vassal of the Frankish kings. But the first Aragonese county dynasty that showed signs of solidity appeared shortly after, in the year 828. Aznar Galíndez was at its head. In the times of his successors, Galindo Aznárez I (844-867), Aznar Galíndez II (867-893) and Galindo Aznárez II (893-922), the county, whose main city was Jaca, gradually extended towards the upper basin of the Gállego, while the Carolingian influence faded. The heiress of Galindo Aznárez II, called Andre-goto Galíndez, married the king of Pamplona, García Sánchez I. In this way, the county of Aragón entered the orbit of the Pamplona monarchs.
The counties of the future Catalonia
The term Marca Hispánica has been applied, although perhaps with little foundation, to all the northeastern territories of the Iberian Peninsula, which constituted, during the 9th and 10th centuries, one of the southern borders of the Carolingian Empire. The starting point of these political nuclei is found in the occupation, in the year 801, of the city of Barcelona, thanks to the union of the Hispano-Visigothic population of ancient Tarraconense with the Frankish armies, at the head of which was Ludovico Pío, or Louis the Pious, son of Charlemagne . Barcelona became the center of a county, but at the same time other counties emerged, such as Gerona, Urgel, Cerdaña, Besalú and Ampurias. Leaders of the local aristocracies were initially at the head of these counties, but the pro-independence attitude of some of them, including Count Bera of Barcelona, motivated the installation of the Franks. However, the crisis of the Carolingian Empire, and above all the struggles that followed the death of Louis the Pious (840), made it easier for the counts of those territories to transmit the positions to their heirs, while the Frankish influence was diluted. .
Repopulation process of Count Vifredo, el Velloso
A very important count was Vifredo el Velloso (879-898), who, in addition to his status as count of Barcelona, took control of several other counties. Three of those counties, Barcelona, Gerona and Vic, would pass undivided to his heirs. Vifredo el Velloso promoted the repopulation tasks, embodied in the occupation of the county of Osona, or plain of Vic . Said repopulation was carried out by the aprisio system. , similar to the haste of the Asturian kingdom, being its protagonists people from the Pyrenean regions, who acted on their own or under the direction of vassals of Count Vifredo. As a result of this action, the southern border of the Marca Hispánica was located in the course of the Llobregat, Cardoner and Segre Medio rivers. Count Vifredo, on the other hand, enjoyed ample autonomy, largely due to the decline of the Carolingian dynasty, but he never broke the ties that united him with the Frankish kings. The old idea that Vifredo el Velloso achieved the independence of his counties, fostered by romantic historiography, has not the slightest foundation. After Vifredo's death, the counties of the future Catalonia continued their repopulation activity, although this only gained real momentum after Almanzor's disappearance.
End of Ties with the Frankish Kingdom
The definitive break with the Frankish monarchs, on the other hand, took place at the end of the 10th century, specifically in the year 988, when the Count of Barcelona, Borrell II at the time, took advantage of the change of dynasty produced in French lands, where accession to the throne of the Capetians took place, to stop taking the oath of allegiance to the Frankish kings. His successor, Ramón Borrell (998-1018), was the protagonist of the advance of his dominions through the lands of La Segarra, Conca de Barberá and Camp de Tarragona, territories that were part of what will be called New Catalonia. .
The territories of the so-called Marca Hispánica were above all rural, highlighting the cultivation of cereals, vines and vegetables, as well as beans. There were also cities, such as Gerona and, in particular, Barcelona. The connection with the Frankish kingdom explains the penetration of European feudal institutions. Many peasants were in a situation of dependency, but there were also allodial lands, that is, free of charges. The highest authority was exercised by the counts, representatives of the Frankish kings.
Counties were divided into military districts , the vicariates , led by a vicar or veguer .
