The Russian Campaign was a war waged by Napoleon I against the Russian Empire from May 1812 to March 1813. The Emperor there lost more than 300,000 men and it will be the beginning of the end for the French Empire. The retreat will be marked by many scenes of atrocities where the barbarism of the Cossacks competes with the deplorable climatic conditions imposed by "General Winter". The Russian campaign is one of the most dramatic episodes in the entire epic of the Napoleonic wars. The tragedy made a deep impression on people's minds, to the point that Berezina has become a common expression to talk about a calamitous situation.
Why the Russian campaign?
We sometimes hear that the Russian campaign was an act of hibris on the part of Napoleon who, at the height of his glory and his power, would have gone to lose everything in a too daring expedition. This statement deserves to be challenged since firstly Napoleon was not in an easy situation at the time and therefore the invasion of Russia was not a personal whim.
Indeed in 1811 Napoleon, although at the head of the first European (not to say world) power, encountered some difficulties. From a symbolic point of view first the situation with the papacy has worsened, but worse, from a military point of view the imperial army is completely bogged down in Spain where it faces the guerrillas and the English. The best troops are therefore forced to remain in the peninsula and the constant losses weigh on public opinion. The defeats suffered by the French generals put an end to the myth of the invincibility of the imperial army and the European monarchies regained hope of bringing the Empire to the ground. In 1809, when Austria declared war on France, the Russian ally remained frozen. It was only by his own means that Napoleon silenced Austrian inclinations.
So the Russian alliance was only in name. The Tsar had not supported France, distancing himself more and more from France since the interview in Erfurt in 1808 where Talleyrand had taken care to awaken in him the idea of becoming the new liberator of the Europe by bringing down the Eagle. In the meantime, the Czar remains in a passivity which exacerbates Napoleon, the alliance is no longer useless:militarily, as we have seen, but also economically. Indeed the purpose of the alliance was to extend the continental blockade intended to strangle the British economy:it is not respected by Russia.
Napoleon also hoped for flourishing Franco-Russian exchanges, it is a disappointment:the long distances mean that exchanges are weak, confined to luxury products. However, the Tsar imposed dissuasive customs tariffs on this type of product. Military, economic, but also lineage disillusions since the Czar refuses the hand of his sister to Napoleon, forcing the latter to refer to Marie-Louise of Austria.
In 1811 Napoleon felt that the Tsar was going to move from passive resistance to armed resistance:rumors of rearmament were circulating. Marshal Davout stationed in Poland informs him of the important movement of Russian troops in the East. Things are confirmed and Napoleon is convinced that Poland is threatened, he sends troops to reinforce the possible future front line. For his part, Tsar Alexander remains hesitant, he ends up giving up his preparations for attack to adopt a defensive strategy.
The march to war
The warlike intentions of Russia having been revealed, respect for the continental blockade being a priority for Napoleon, he prepared his army for the invasion. While the ambassadors dragged out negotiations in Saint Petersburg, Napoleon set a levy of 120,000 men for 1812. The topography cabinet of the war office was responsible for producing the maps necessary for the future campaign. From January 1812, imperial armies posted throughout Europe converged on Germany while Davout and his 150,000 men protected the Polish border.
Prussia is hesitating about the way forward, it's not the lack of desire to follow the Russians but Austria would have to do the same for that, victory would be more certain. However, Austria, beaten in 1809, was not yet in a position to put up real resistance to the French army. Finally, Prussia resigns itself to letting the imperial army pass through its territory and providing it with about half of its own troops, i.e. nearly 20,000 men. Austria does the same, providing 30,000 men with the promise of seizing the Romanian regions. Eventually Prussia and Austria find some interest in this eastward push, Austria would concede leads to giving Galicia to the Prussians if it can seize Illyria.
Sweden, on the other hand, remains very cold towards Napoleon. The aristocracy is hostile to him and although French King Bernadotte only supports the interests of his own country. The continental blockade is no longer respected, Napoleon occupies Swedish Pomerania and Bernadotte joins the ranks of the enemies of his homeland. Russia of course obtains the adhesion of the United Kingdom, but also the neutrality of the Turks whom they have just beaten. Despite the immensity of his empire, Tsar Alexander was handicapped by the absence of conscription, he could only field two armies, one under the orders of Barclay de Tolly (120,000 men) and the other under the command of Bagration ( 40,000 men).
On April 8, the Tsar issues an ultimatum to Napoleon, ordering him to evacuate Prussia and all lands beyond the Elbe. Before even waiting for the answer, Alexander takes command of his army in Vilna. Napoleon has prepared his campaign, he can no longer turn back and personally takes command of the army.
The start of the Russian campaign
May 16 Napoleon is in Dresden where he surrounds himself with his allies:the Austrian Emperor Francis, the King of Prussia Frederick William and the King of Bavaria. In a revolutionary enthusiasm that astonishes Napoleon sings "The song of departure"! On June 24, the Napoleonic army crossed the Niemen and entered Russian territory, the same night Napoleon's horse, frightened by a hare, unhorsed its rider. Some saw it as a bad omen.
As things went on as the French army sinks into the immensity of Russia, it weakens. Indeed Napoleon is always forced to leave small contingents behind to ensure the security of his supply lines. A supply which, moreover, is less and less effective as one moves away from the border. Added to this is the almost natural phenomenon that causes any army on the march to dwindle due to desertions and illnesses (typhus, dysentery, etc.).
The invading army is suffering, not from the cold at the start of the campaign, but from the heat of the days which contrasts too much with the coolness of the nights. The supply is bad, to relieve France Napoleon had planned to use Prussia and Poland, but the hostile population of the first and the bad harvests of the second make this plan lame. The army loses 5 to 6,000 men a day! Not all the exhausted make it to the hospitals and many rotting bodies pollute the air along the roads.
Clash of the Titans
The Russian army has never ceased to retreat, not out of strategic insight as is sometimes said, but out of fear of confrontation, at least that's what underlined by Jean Tulard. On the contrary, Marie-Pierre Rey points out that the withdrawal orders were printed even before the invasion, thus justifying strategic premeditation. The two are not incompatible, the general staff had certainly foreseen this option and the generals in the field certainly considered it too risky to face Napoleon anyway. They therefore withdraw, burning behind them the non-transportable supply stocks. On August 17 the Russians seek to defend Smolensk:the burnt city falls into the hands of the French and the Russians resume their frantic flight. Arrived in Moscow, however, it seems out of the question to continue to retreat.
The Unnamable
Moscow, the holy city has been evacuated of its population. Suddenly a fire breaks out, then another, the whole town is on fire! We throw ourselves towards the water pumps:they have disappeared! Arsonists released from prisons by Governor Rostopchin on the orders of General Kutuzov set fire to the city everywhere. Fanned by a violent wind, the flames spread inexorably in the middle of the mostly wooden buildings. The heat invades the streets, the sparks burn the skins, some soldiers take advantage of the state of panic to loot the city:on that day hell was in Moscow. Helpless, Napoleon watches his conquest go up in smoke. The fire did not stop until the 21st, for lack of fuel... Arrested arsonists were executed.
Napoleon, however, did not lose hope, he waited for an answer from the Tsar, the start of negotiations, a desire for peace… Nothing came. Fearing being stuck in Russia, he resigns himself to ordering a retreat. On October 19, the French army left Moscow in ruins, leaving behind 700 sick and wounded that the Cossack general Ilowaiski entrusted to peasants who massacred them to share the uniforms.
Retreat from Russia
Retreat is the best-known event of the ill-fated Russian campaign, soldiers are forced to turn back and find it extremely difficult to obtain supplies in a country where the population is hostile and where the Cossacks implement the principle of scorched earth. Height of their misfortunes winter suddenly falls on Russia with negative temperatures reaching -25 or even -30 degrees. After an exceptionally mild month of October, the French did not expect to find themselves thrown into white hell.
In summer uniform, soldiers are caught off guard and adapt somehow with what they find on the way. The column stretches out, encumbered by the loot amassed and pulled into various cars. Cars that will all end up on the sides of the road when the horses in turn succumb to cold and hunger. The cold sticks the lips together, freezes the limbs, he who never falls asleep never wakes up. The Cossacks finish off those who stay behind or move away from the main column.
The Cossacks massacre, capture some mujiks are ready to pay to have a Frenchman in their hands for the simple pleasure of impaling him or throwing him into a cauldron of boiling water . Hunger torments the bellies giving birth to the most sublime cohesions as well as the most unhealthy selfishness. Horse meat is a sought-after dish, those that have been dead for a long time, frozen, are difficult to chop, even with an axe. But as soon as they stumble we rush on those still alive! In the midst of the starving soldiers, the Russian prisoners are even worse off, there are even acts of cannibalism in their ranks. Soldiers, prisoners, but there are also a few women in this human flow:officers' wives, vivandières, actresses, women of bad life...
In Smolensk, a city burnt down during the conquest, Napoleon had provided food, but the disorganization of the supply means that they are insufficient and, so to speak, only benefit at the Guard, arriving first. On November 6, 1812 Napoleon received terrible news. Word of the military disaster reached Paris and General Malet nearly overthrew the regime. The latter organized a coup by announcing the death of the Emperor and rallying various companies in the capital on the simple presentation of a false order from the Senate. Thus supported, he freed some prison mates and even managed to lure the first regiment of the Imperial Guard, which he ordered to block the entrances to Paris. He imprisons Savary and the prefect of police, he only has to convince General Hullin, commander-in-chief of the place of Paris, to hold the capital.
But as day breaks the deception is unmasked by Hullin and his staff, Malet is finally arrested. Napoleon is ulcerated by this news, it is not so much the audacity of Malet which puts him out of him but rather the incompetence of his ministers who let themselves be surprised and the behavior of the officers who followed a pseudo-order from the Senate without even thinking of rallying to his thread, the Aiglon. Aware of the danger posed by rumors of his death, eager to settle these political failures, convinced that the only way to regain the military initiative is to raise a new army in France to counterattack, Napoleon decided to leave his army for Paris. . He advances with his men, under the pressure of the Russians who try to block his way, to stop him, and are opposed to a fierce resistance as in Krasnoë where Ney manages to save the rearguard. Faced with the danger of the Cossack raids, 600 cavalrymen who still have their mounts were assembled in Doubrowna to form around the Emperor this close guard which was called the "sacred squadron".
November 21 Napoleon has only 24,000 soldiers left...
The Russian campaign turns Berezina
Arriving at the Bérézina, the army finds itself stuck facing a river carrying huge blocks of ice. For the Russian army, the moment of the hallali seems to have come, but thanks to the sacrifice of its pontonniers who work wonders in the icy waters, the French army manages to escape with 50,000 fighters. It is however only at the cost of scenes of horror, a rearguard holding back the enemy while on the bridges we trample, we jostle, and at the slightest misstep we disappear forever in the tumult of the waters. jellies.
He entrusts command to his brother-in-law Murat and leaves for Paris by sleigh, accompanied only by Caulaincourt, Duroc, Mouton and a few others. For this trip from December 7 to 18, 1812, Napoleon carried around his neck a small vial of poison, a tragic alternative to capture. The escapade will end in a vulgar post car, in Meaux the Emperor and his companions had to take credit to pay the cost of the journey, having between them only 80 francs in their pocket...
Unable to manage this routed army, Murat in turn entrusts command to Marshal Ney who deploys colossal energy to save what can be saved. On December 8 the remnants of the French army were jostled by Kutuzov at Vilna and on the 12th they recrossed the Niemen. The losses of the Napoleonic army are estimated at more than 390,000 dead, including prisoners and deserters.
On December 31, 1812 the Prussians, feeling in a position of strength, changed sides. From then on, Napoleon's allies turned against him one by one, all hoping to have their share of the cake for having participated in the victorious march of the Russian army. Although after this reversal of alliance the situation of Napoleon seems hopeless, he nevertheless manages to organize a fierce resistance thanks to a new army raised in the emergency. The year 1813 was marked by the German campaign where, although outnumbered, Napoleon managed to defeat the coalition on several occasions.
So much so that the instruction becomes not to attack the French army when Napoleon is in command, but only when you are facing one of his generals… Napoleon has to be a genius, he cannot be everywhere at the same time… The adventure ends in 1814 with the campaign of France where Napoleon offers a dazzling spectacle of strategic qualities, glorious song of the swan until the abdication.
To go further
- Boudon Jacques-Olivier, Napoleon and the Russian Campaign:1812, EXHD, 2021
- Marie-Pierre Rey, 1812:History of the Russian campaign. Fields History, 2021.
- GARNIER Jacques, Atlas Napoleon. 126 cards on Napoleonic life and campaigns, Napoleon 1st Edition, 2006.
- REY Marie-Pierre, The Dreadful Tragedy. A New History of the Russian Campaign, Flammarion, 2012.