* Total casualties: estimated between 620,000 and 750,000, including both military personnel and civilians.
Economic losses
* Total cost: estimated at $20 billion, about 1/3 of the antebellum national wealth.
* Infrastructure: railroads, bridges, roads, canals, and factories destroyed or damaged, especially in the South.
* Agriculture: crop failures, livestock losses, and land damage led to severe food shortages and economic disruption.
Social losses
* Enslaved people: an estimated 4 million slaves were emancipated during the war, profoundly changing the social and economic fabric of the South.
* Freedmen: faced significant challenges, including discrimination, poverty, and lack of education and resources.
* Refugees and displaced persons: millions of people were displaced during the war, creating a humanitarian crisis.
Environmental losses
* Deforestation: massive deforestation occurred due to the use of wood for fuel and construction.
* Soil erosion: intensive agriculture during the war led to soil erosion and environmental degradation.