1. Assimilation and Cultural Preservation: Many Native Americans adopted aspects of mainstream American society as a survival strategy. This included adopting English names, Christian beliefs, and dressing in "white" clothing. However, this assimilation was often accompanied by efforts to preserve their cultural heritage and traditions, such as language, ceremonies, and stories passed down through generations.
2. Activism and Resistance: Native American activists emerged during this period, advocating for civil rights, land rights, and improved living conditions. They organized groups, such as the Society of American Indians, to fight against discrimination and promote Native American self-determination. Some individuals, like Zitkala-Sa and Charles Curtis, used their platform to speak out against injustice and demand social change.
3. Spiritual Movements: Many Native Americans turned to spiritual practices as a source of strength and resilience in the face of discrimination. Traditional ceremonies and rituals were revived as a means of maintaining cultural identity and connecting with ancestral wisdom. Religious movements like the Ghost Dance and the Native American Church provided hope and spiritual guidance during challenging times.
4. Collaboration and Coalitions: Some Native American leaders pursued alliances with progressive organizations and sympathetic individuals to raise awareness about their struggles. They worked with allies such as John Collier, the Commissioner of Indian Affairs during the New Deal, to advocate for policies that respected tribal sovereignty and addressed economic disparities.
5. Legal Challenges: Native American tribes and individuals also sought legal recourse to fight discrimination and protect their rights. They filed lawsuits to challenge unfair treaties and the violation of their land rights. Activists like Sarah Winnemucca and Carlos Montezuma petitioned Congress and the Bureau of Indian Affairs for better treatment and increased opportunities.
6. Economic Strategies: In response to economic hardship, some Native American communities focused on economic development initiatives. They established cooperatives, small businesses, and agricultural enterprises to generate income and reduce reliance on government assistance.
7. Migration: In search of better opportunities and escape from discrimination, some Native Americans migrated to urban areas, primarily in the Western states. This urban migration created new challenges, including crowded living conditions, unemployment, and cultural dislocation, but also provided access to services and connections with other marginalized communities.
It's important to note that these reactions were not mutually exclusive, and there was diversity in responses among Native American individuals, tribes, and regions. The collective efforts and resilience of Native Americans laid the foundation for further activism and progress in subsequent decades.