A mentally ill emperor was no exception in ancient Rome. For the Week of the Classics Kennislink gives the floor to Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, biographer of twelve Roman emperors. It is not surprising that his creamy stories have been selling like hot cakes since the second century.
“My name is Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus and I lived from AD 70 to 140. I have been called the first sensational journalist in history. My chronicles are full of scandal stories about famous Roman emperors and Emperor Caligula takes the cake:he turned out to be a cruel, sex-crazed lunatic.”
“For my information, I dug into the Imperial Archives – where stories and intrigue abound like this – and talked to relatives. Although these are my interpretations, I haven't had to make up scandals to make my books smoother. Unfortunately I did not experience Emperor Caligula personally, he died in the year 41, but stories about his reign are still fresh and the records intact.”
The little boot
“Caligula is not the Emperor's real name. As a child, he often accompanied his father, General Germanicus (15 BC – 19 AD). The general is in command of troops in Germania and later in the east. During these trips, the boy wears a miniature military uniform, with his father's soldiers having matching open soldier boots, caligae, made. This earned him the affectionate nickname Caligula among the soldiers. During his adult life and reign, the emperor goes through life as Gaius Caesar. The nickname from his childhood was mainly used by later historians.”
“Now Father Germanicus is very popular and the people see him as the most likely successor to Germanicus' uncle, Emperor Tiberius (42 BC - 37 AD). Germanicus only dies too early to succeed him, probably from poisoning. At the imperial court, all kinds of intrigues take place around the succession of Tiberius, who costs many lives. Tiberius becomes bitter and suspicious of all the betrayal around him. On his indictment, the senate declares Germanicus' sons Nero and Drusus to be enemies of the state. They will die, like Caligula's mother Agrippina:let her be banished by Tiberius. The younger Caligula, along with three sisters, is raised by their grandmother, far from the court.”
“As a child, Caligula shows strange behavior. He is cruel and also very fond of his sister Drusilla. Rumor has it that she lost her virginity to her own brother. When Drusilla later dies at age 21, Caligula is devastated with grief. He disappears, only to reappear haggard days later. He is then already emperor and officially elevates his sister to a deity. Just like himself, by the way. Caligula has temples built where people can offer sacrifices to him. He has the heads of existing idols replaced by his own head.”
“But I'm getting ahead of things:back to Caligula's childhood years. At nineteen, life takes a different turn. Tiberius lets the boy live with him at court, probably to keep an eye on him. Tiberius is already aware of Caligula's atrocities:"I am raising a dragon for the Roman people, a Phaeton who needs no sun chariot to unleash a world conflagration." He sees no good in the boy."
“But when the old emperor dies, there is no male successor besides Caligula. Civilians and soldiers have not forgotten the popular Germanicus and they see in his son Caligula the perfect emperor. And although the young man is only 25 and therefore has hardly any political or military experience, he is suddenly given all political power. Past emperors were given different senate offices and powers over the years and experience. However, Caligula is immediately named Princeps by the Senate, which stands for the first citizen and first senator. This title is given to the emperors during the period when the empire is still a republic in name (Principate).”
Bread and play
“Like emperor, Caligula makes himself popular by organizing games, distributing money and bread, lifting banishments, and pardoning other punishments. He punishes members of the elite who had misbehaved. But within two years things go wrong. Caligula's motto 'a man must be frugal or emperor' is starting to take its toll. The emperor spends far more money on parties, temples and games than comes in. He levies extra taxes, confiscates possessions and has a brothel made in his palace for the income. Especially elite and senators should watch out for him. Caligula is cruel and unpredictable, which kills many people. He says he doesn't mind if they hate him, as long as they're afraid of him."
“The history books will be filled with Caligula's atrocities:he uses live captives as fodder for the wild animals in the amphitheater, he likes to watch the torture of prisoners and men he envies, he kills. The game element in Caligula's murders strikes me as the most cruel:for example, he once disguises himself as a sacrificial servant and beats the priest to death instead of the sacrificial animal. Caligula regularly wants to say to the many women he chases that it is in his power to separate their beautiful necks from their torso with one blow. He also lets senators know with a chuckle that their lives are in his hands.”
Mental Ill
“When I consider all these facts, I am convinced that the Emperor was ill. He looked unwell physically, with his pale broad head and unbalanced build. But above all, he was mentally ill:Caligula suffered from epilepsy during his childhood and nightmares and nervous breakdowns during his adult years. His illness manifests itself in cruel and strange behaviour, such as his exceptional wardrobe. The emperor appears in stage attire, women's attire, or creations alien to Roman citizens in the first place. Loving is hard:Caligula loves his sister most of all, but she dies. His horse Incitatus also gets all the love. And in addition, a privately furnished house with caring staff. He even wants to appoint the beast as consul, if only to show his contempt for the senators.”
“The fact that Caligula was murdered within a few regnal years was provoked by his own behavior. Conspirators stab him while playing, then kill his wife Caesonia and their daughter. With this murder, every Caesar with the first name Gaius has met a violent end.”
Caligula now
What do we think today about the emperor and his madness? Was it a psychopath, a mentally ill? No, according to current scientists. Olivier Hekster, professor of Ancient History at Radboud University, for example, tones down Caligula's behaviour. According to him, the emperor committed atrocities, but mainly against the senate and the elite. To demonstrate his absolute power to the Senate, Caligula bullied and belittled them wherever he could.
Although he, because of his young age, came to power without the desired military and political baggage, Caligula was still above the senate. He wanted to let them know that too. The atrocities, whether real, exaggerated or invented, have been mainly mentioned by later writers and used in plays and historiography. However, references to this are scarce in ancient texts. The sensation-seeking Suetonius is therefore not completely reliable, but is a source of beautiful stories.